El verbo TO BE (SER Y ESTAR), es quizás el verbo más importante del inglés y debes aprenderlo de memoria. Como habrás comprobado, existe un solo verbo para los dos correspondientes en español.
Conjugaré en primer lugar el verbo TO BE en afirmativa, negativa e interrogativa, para luego indicarte las diferentes estructuras de las que antes te hablaba.
TO BE (SER Y ESTAR)
Afirmativa Negativa Interrogativa
I AM I AM NOT AM I?
YOU ARE YOU ARE NOT ARE YOU?
HE IS HE IS NOT IS HE?
SHE IS SHE IS NOT IS SHE?
IT IS IT IS NOT IS IT?
WE ARE WE ARE NOT ARE WE?
YOU ARE YOU ARE NOT ARE YOU?
THEY ARE THEY ARE NOT ARE THEY?
Estas son las formas completas del verbo TO BE, también podemos utilizar las formas contractas para las oraciones afirmativas y negativas.
A continuación conjugaré dichas formas:
Afirmativa Negativa
I’M I AM NOT
YOU’RE YOU AREN’T
HE’S HE ISN’T
SHE’S SHE ISN’T
IT’S IT ISN’T
WE’RE WE AREN’T
YOU’RE YOU AREN’T
THEY’RE THEY AREN’T
Ya hemos conjugado el verbo TO BE, es importante que sepas que el verbo en sí, es: AM, ARE, IS, lo que aparece a la izquierda son los pronombres personales, o pronombres sujeto.
· I (YO) 1ª persona singular.
· You (TÚ) 2ª persona singular.
· He (ÉL) 3ª persona masculino singular.
· She (ELLA) 3ª persona femenino singular.
· It (ELLO) 3ª persona singular. Se utiliza para cosas y animales.
· We (NOSOTROS/AS) 1ª persona plural.
· You (VOSOTROS/AS) 2ª persona plural.
· They (ELLOS/AS) 3ª persona plural.
Como ya te habrás dado cuenta, la 2ª persona del singular y del plural son iguales, ¿cómo las distinguirás? Muy fácil, por el contexto, cuando se trate del plural irá acompañado de sustantivos en plural.
Ej:You are a nurse: Tú eres enfermera/You are nurses: Vosotras sois enfermeras
No existen en inglés fórmulas de cortesía y respeto como el Usted y Ustedes del español. Siempre utilizaremos You, como antes te he indicado, para singular y plural.
ESTRUCTURAS
PRESENTE
ORACIONES AFIRMATIVAS:
SUJETO + VERBO TO BE + COMPLEMENTOS
Ej: I am Spanish. Yo soy española
· Es muy importante que recuerdes que en inglés todas las oraciones deben llevar sujeto, una oración sin sujeto es una oración mal construida, la razón es que los verbos no se conjugan y todas las personas tienen la misma forma, de esta manera, a menos que coloques un sujeto, no se sabría quien realiza la acción del verbo. El sujeto puede ser uno de los pronombres personales o un nombre propio.
Anna is English. Anna es inglesa.
· En ingles no existen géneros, así se utiliza la misma forma para el masculino y el femenino. Compara las siguientes frases:
Peter is French. Peter es francés / Susan is French. Susan es francesa
ORACIONES NEGATIVAS:
SUJETO + VERBO TO BE + NOT + COMPLEMENTOS
Ej: They are not teachers. Ellos no son profesores.
Michael is not Chinese. Michael no es chino
ORACIONES INTERROGATIVAS:
VERBO TO BE + SUJETO + COMPLEMENTOS?
Ej: Are you Japanese? ¿Eres japonés?
Is Margaret German? ¿Margaret es alemana?
· Recuerda que los años en inglés siempre se preguntan con el verbo TO BE, es muy importante que recuerdes cómo preguntar la edad.
HOW OLD ARE YOU? I AM 17 (¿Cuántos años tienes? Tengo 17 años)
Una mala traducción sería: ¿Cómo viejo eres tu? yo soy 17.
· Como habrás comprobado, en ingles el signo de interrogación va sólo al final de la oración, nunca al principio como sucede en español. Ya hemos aprendido a preguntar en inglés, lo más normal en este tipo de preguntas es hacer una respuesta corta, veamos cómo hacerlo.
Respuesta corta afirmativa:
Yes, Sujeto(en forma de pronombre)+ Verbo
Ej: Is she Italian? Yes, she is (¿Ella es italiana? Sí, si lo es)
Are Peter and Philip Portuguese? Yes, they are (Son Peter y Philip portugueses? Sí, lo son)
Las respuestas en Inglés siempre precisan un verbo al final de la oración. En Español, estamos acostumbrados a responder con un sí o un no, para nosotros es suficiente, pero un angloparlante o para contestar correctamente cualquier examen, precisarás poner detras de la respuesta sea afirmativa o negativa el sujeto en forma de pronombre y luego el verbo, tal y como dice el ejemplo.
Respuesta corta negativa:
No, Sujeto(pronombre) + Verbo + Not (forma contracta)
Ej: Are you doctors? No, we aren’t (¿Sois vosotros doctores? No, nosotros no lo somos)
Is John British? No, he isn’t (¿Es John Británico? No, el no lo es?
PREGUNTAS CON PARTÍCULAS INTERROGATIVAS:
WH... + VERBO TO BE + SUJETO + COMPLEMENTOS?
Ej: Where are you from? I am from Spain
WHAT: ¿QUÉ?
WHEN: ¿CUÁNDO?
WHERE: ¿DÓNDE?
WHY: ¿POR QUÉ?
HOW? ¿CÓMO?
WHO? ¿QUIÉN?
HOW MUCH ? ¿CUÁNTO? (OBJETOS INCONTABLES)
HOW MANY? ¿CUÁNTO? (OBJETOS CONTABLES)
WHAT TIME? ¿A QUÉ HORA?
WHOSE? ¿DE QUIÉN?
THERE IS: hay Singular
THERE ARE: hay Plural
Observad que estamos preguntando con el mismo tiempo verbal en español y en inglés pero la forma verbal cambia. Además, nos confundimos porque coincide con las formas del presente del TO BE.
Resulta complicado, pero solo hay que memorizarlo y no hacerse un lio con traducciones locas.
ORACIONES AFIRMATIVAS:
THERE IS/ ARE + COMPLEMENTOS:Ej: There is a new boy in my classroom. / Hay un nuevo chico en mi clase.
La forma común de equivocarnos sería traducir la frase como: Ahí es un nuevo chico en mi clase.
Sería la traducción literal y vemos que queda horrible.
ORACIONES NEGATIVAS:
THERE IS/ ARE NOT + COMPLEMENTOS:Ej: There aren’t books on the table. / No hay libros en la mesa.
Traduciremos mal la frase si decimos: Ahí no están (no son) libros en la mesa.
ORACIONES INTERROGATIVAS:
IS / ARE THERE + COMPLEMENTOS?:Ej: Is there a free chair here? / Hay una silla libre aquí?
Mala traducción: ¿Es ahí una libre silla aquí?
| ahí | there | ||
| allá | there | ||
| allí | there | ||
| dentro | there | ||
Como se ve, el advervio "there" tiene muchas traducciones, además combinado con otras palabras da lugar a expresiones diferentes.
ARTÍCULOS
En ingles, igual que en español, hay dos tipos de artículos:
A / AN: Artículo indeterminado: Un/Una /Uno
Se utiliza cuando es la primera vez que nombramos un objeto, únicamente se utiliza con objetos contables en singular, se utiliza tanto para masculino como para femenino.
Ej: I am a girl : Soy una niña / Peter is a boy: Peter es un niño
Utilizamos AN en lugar de A cuando la siguiente palabra empieza por vocal.
Ej: It is an elephant: Es un elefante
Es obligatorio el uso del artículo indeterminado delante de las profesiones en singular.
Ej: Jane is a teacher: Jane es profesora
THE: Artículo determinado: El /La/ Los /Las
Se utiliza con objetos contables e incontables, cuando ya hemos hablado antes de ese objeto o persona y los hablantes ya sabemos a que no estamos refiriendo. Se utiliza tanto en singular como en plural, masculino y femenino.
Ej: It is a car. The car is red: Es un coche. El coche es rojo.
The boys are Scottish: Los niños son escoceses
No utilizaremos el artículo cuando nos referimos a algo en plural como grupo.
Oranges are fruits. Las naranjas son frutas.
Cuando sólo existe un ejemplar del objeto al que nos referimos utilizamos el artículo THE.
Ej: The sun (el sol), the moon (la luna) the earth (la tierra) the world (el mundo).
ADJETIVOS
Los adjetivos en inglés, igual que los artículos y los sustantivos no tienen género.Nunca llevan plural, el plural lo lleva el sustantivo (nombre) al que acompañan.
Peter and Helen are happy: Peter y Helen son felices.
Peter is happy: Peter es feliz.
El adjetivo siempre va delante del sustantivo.
The English girl is thin: La niña inglesa es delgada
The red car is new: El coche rojo es nuevo
CONJUGACIÓN DEL VERBO TO HAVE Y
ESTRUCTURAS
El segundo verbo que vamos a aprender es el verbo TO HAVE (TENER), es, al igual que TO BE, un verbo irregular. Las estructuras para las oraciones afirmativas, negativas e interrogativas son las mismas que para el verbo TO BE. Conjugaré en primer lugar el verbo:
TO HAVE (TENER)
Afirmativa Negativa Interrogativa
I HAVE GOT I HAVE NOT GOT HAVE I GOT?
YOU HAVE GOT YOU HAVE NOT GOT HAVE YOU GOT?
HE HAS GOT HE HAS NOT GOT HAS HE GOT?
SHE HAS GOT SHE HAS NOT GOT HAS SHE GOT?
IT HAS GOT IT HAS NOT GOT HAS IT GOT?
WE HAVE GOT WE HAVE NOT GOT HAVE WE GOT?
YOU HAVE GOT YOU HAVE NOT GOT HAVE YOU GOT?
THEY HAVE GOT THEY HAVE NOT GOT HAVE THEY GOT?
La palabra GOT no aporta ningún significado al propio verbo, se puede omitir en las oraciones afirmativas, no lo hagas en negativas e interrogativas.
Igual que el verbo TO BE también el verbo TO HAVE tiene sus correspondientes formas contractas:
Afirmativa Negativa
I’VE I HAVEN’T GOT
YOU’VE YOU HAVEN’T GOT
HE’S HE HASN’T GOT
SHE’S SHE HASN’T GOT
IT’S IT HASN’T GOT
WE’VE WE HAVEN’T GOT
YOU’VE YOU HAVEN’T GOT
THEY’VE THEY HAVEN’T GOT
ESTRUCTURAS
ORACIONES AFIRMATIVAS:SUJETO + VERBO TO HAVE + COMPLEMENTOS
Ej: I have got a big house. Tengo una casa grande
ORACIONES NEGATIVAS:
SUJETO + HAVE/HAS NOT GOT + COMPLEMENTOS
Ej: You have not got a dog: Tú no tienes un perro
ORACIONES INTERROGATIVAS:
HAVE/HAS + SUJETO + GOT + COMPLEMENTOS?
Ej: Have you got an American friend? ¿Tienes un amigo Americano?
Recuerda que nunca te falte poner la palabra "GOT" en formas negativa e interrogativa.
ADJETIVOS / PRONOMBRES DEMOSTRATIVOS:
SINGULAR:
THIS: ESTE/ ESTA/ESTO: (Para referirse a objetos cercanos al hablante)
THAT: ESE/ ESA/ ESO / AQUEL/AQUELLA/AQUELLO (Objetos que están lejos de la persona que habla)
PLURAL:
THESE: ESTOS / ESTAS (Objetos cercanos)
THOSE: ESOS/ ESAS/ AQUELLOS/AQUELLAS (Objetos lejanos)
ADJETIVOS Y PRONOMBRES
P. Personales A. Posesivos P. Posesivos P. Objeto
I MY MINE ME
YOU YOUR YOURS YOU
HE HIS HIS HIM
SHE HER HERS HER
IT ITS ----- IT
WE OUR OURS US
YOU YOUR YOURS YOU
THEY THEIR THEIRS THEM
Pronombres personales: Los usaremos únicamente como sujeto de la oración.
Ej: I am American but he is Italian./Yo soy Americano pero él es Italiano
Adjetivos posesivos: Se utilizan para expresar posesión, quién es el propietario de los objetos siempre delante de un sustantivo/nombre.
Ej: My house is very big but our room is very small./ Mi casa es muy grande pero nuestra habitación es muy pequeña.
Pronombres posesivos: Se utilizan para indicar quién es el dueño de algo, sustituyen al sustantivo/nombre. Pueden funcionar como sujeto.
Ej: Whose is this car? It’s mine./ ¿De quién es este coche? Este es mio.
Pronombres objeto: Funcionan como complemento directo o indirecto del verbo de la oración. Cada vez que aparezca un pronombre en una oración que no sea sujeto de la frase. Detrás de una preposición siempre utilizamos este tipo de pronombres.
Ej: Did you see Peter? Yes, I saw him last week but I didn’t talk to him.
¿Has visto a Peter? Sí, le vi la semana pasada pero no hablé con él.
PASADO DEL VERBO TO BE
AFIRMATIVA NEGATIVA INTERROGATIVA
I WAS I WAS NOT (WASN’T) WAS I?
I WERE I WERE NOT (WEREN’T) WERE I?
HE WAS HE WAS NOT (WASN’T) WAS HE?
SHE WAS SHE WAS NOT (WASN’T) WAS SHE?
IT WAS IT WAS NOT (WASN’T) WAS IT?
WE WERE WE WERE NOT (WEREN’T) WERE WE?
YOU WERE YOU WERE NOT (WEREN’T) WERE YOU?
THEY WERE THEY WERE NOT (WEREN’T) WERE THEY?
* Aparece con expresiones de tiempo como YESTERDAY,LAST WEEK,LAST MONTH, LAST YEAR.
ORACIONES AFIRMATIVAS
SUJETO + VERBO TO BE + COMPLEMENTOS
ORACIONES NEGATIVAS
SUJETO + VERBO TO BE + NOT + COMPLEMENTOS
ORACIONES INTERROGATIVAS
VERBO TO BE + SUJETO + COMPLEMENTOS?
PASADO SIMPLE
Se utiliza para expresar acciones puntuales en el pasado. Aparece con expresiones como YESTERDAY, LAST WEEK... Necesitamos el verbo auxiliar DID para las oraciones negativas e interrogativas. Existen dos tipos de verbos en inglés: Verbos regulares y verbos irregulares. Los verbos regulares forman el pasado añadiendo ED al infinitivo. Los verbos irregulares tienen una forma especial para el pasado (2ª columna de los verbos irregulares).
ORACIONES AFIRMATIVAS:
SUJETO + VERBO PASADO + COMPLEMENTOS.
ORACIONES. NEGATIVAS:
SUJETO + DID NOT ( DIDN’T) + VB INFINITIVO + COMPLEMENTOS
ORACIONES INTERROGATIVAS:
DID + SUJETO + VB INFINITIVO + COMPLEMENTOS?
PASADO CONTINUO:
· Se forma con el pasado del verbo TO BE + Verbo principal con ing.
· Se utiliza para expresar acciones que se han desarrollado durante un periodo largo de tiempo en el pasado.
· Suele combinarse con el pasado simple dentro de la misma oración, la acción del verbo que va en pasado continuo es la que estaba teniendo lugar cuando se ve interrumpida por una segunda acción en
pasado simple.
SUJETO + WAS/WERE + VB ING + COMPLEMENTOS:
ORACIONES NEGATIVAS:
SUJETO + WASN’T / WEREN’T + VB ING + COMPLEMENTOS:
ORACIONES INTERROGATIVAS:
WAS / WERE + SUJETO + VB ING + COMPLEMENTOS?
COMPARATIVO DE IGUALDAD:
TAN …………………………………. COMO
AS + ADJETIVO + AS
COMPARATIVO DE SUPERIORIDAD:
MÁS ………………………….QUE
- Adjetivos de dos sílabas o menos.
ADJETIVO + ER + THAN
MORE + ADJETIVO + THAN
SUPERLATIVO:
EL MÁS / LA MÁS……………………….
- Adjetivos de dos sílabas o menos.
THE ADJETIVO + EST
THE MOST + ADJETIVO
Bad-Malo / Worse-Peor / The Worst-el Peor
Far -Lejos Farther/ Further -Lejano The Farthest/ the furthest- el más lejano
IN:
· Con partes del día: In the morning, in the afternoon, in the evening / por la mañana, por la tarde, al aterdecer (crepusculo)
· Con meses: In January, in February.../ En Enero, en Febrero
· Con las estaciones del año: In winter, in spring…/ En invierno, en primavera
· Con años: In 1987/ en 1987
· Con siglos: In the 18th century / en el siglo XVIII
ON·
Con los días de la semana: On Monday, on Tuesday… / ( en Lunes, en Martes) el Lunes el Martes
· Con fechas: On 2nd of May / el 2 de Mayo
· Con días y partes del día: On Wednesday afternoon. / el Miercoles tarde (al anochecer)
· On holidays. / en vacaciones
AT
· Con las horas: At 7 o’clock / a las 7 en punto
· At Christmas, at Easter / en Navidad, Semana Santa.
· At night / por la noche
· At the weekend / en el fin de semana
· At the beginning, at the end / en el principio, al final
AFTER: DESPUES
UNTIL: HASTA
DURING: DURANTE ( DURING + SUSTANTIVOS: Se utiliza con expresiones que respondan a la pregunta WHEN?.
FOR: DURANTE ( DURING + NÚMEROS + PERIODOS DE TIEMPO: Se utiliza con expresiones que respondan a la pregunta HOW LONG?.
SINCE: DESDE
FROM …………….. TO: DESDE ……………. HASTA: Se utiliza tanto como preposición de tiempo como de lugar. Aquí tiene doble significado.
IN: EN / DENTRO DE: Con lugares cerrados
AT: EN : Se utiliza para espacios abiertos, como referencia geográfica
ON: EN / ENCIMA (Tocando la superficie)
NEXT TO: AL LADO DE
CLOSE TO: JUNTO A
NEAR: CERCA DE
FAR (AWAY FROM): LEJOS DE
BEHIND: DETRÁS
IN FRONT OF: DELANTE DE
OPPOSITE: ENFRENTE DE
OVER: ENCIMA DE ( Sin tocar la superficie)
UNDER: DEBAJO DE
INSIDE: DENTRO DE
OUTSIDE: FUERA DE
BETWEEN: ENTRE
AT HOME: EN CASA. Ej: I don’t go out, I stay at home. / No voy a salir, me quedo en casa.
IN BED: EN LA CAMA
GO HOME, GET HOME, COME HOME, REACH HOME,ARRIVE HOME (Observa que no utilizamos preposiciones con la palabra HOME acompañada de verbos de movimiento).
ARRIVE:
ARRIVE IN : Llegar a paises, ciudades....Ej: I arrived in London. / llegué a Londres.
ARRIVE AT: LLegar a espacios cerrados: estaciones, museos, Aeropuertos....
SOME: Algún, alguna, algunos, algunas.
Se utiliza en oraciones afirmativas. Acompaña a nombres incontables (singular) y nombres contables en plural.
ANY: Algún/a/os/as, ningún /a/os/as.
Se utiliza en oraciones negativas e interrogativas.
Acompaña a nombres incontables (singular) y nombres contables (plural)
SOME en oraciones interrogativas:
Aunque he indicado anteriormente que utilizamos ANY en oraciones interrogativas, existen algunas excepciones en las que utilizamos SOME para hacer preguntas:
· Cuando estamos ofreciendo algo:
GENITIVO SAJON
Otra forma de expresar posesión en inglés es el genitivo sajón, con él indicaremos quién es el poseedor o dueño de algún objeto, siempre que este poseedor sea una persona o un animal.
La casa de la niña The girl’s house
Posesión Poseedor
Formamos el genitivo sajón:
· El poseedor aparece en primer lugar, al nombre propio le añadimos un apóstrofe y una s ‘S.
· A continuación, añadimos la posesión, entre el poseedor y la posesión no puede aparecer ningún artículo posesivo o preposición. Si el poseedor es un nombre propio, no utilizamos artículo, si es un nombre común podemos utilizar artículos a adjetivos posesivos.
My brother’s room. ( La habitación de mi hermano)
The cat’s eyes. (Los ojos del gato)
Siempre utilizamos el genitivo sajón para expresar relaciones de parentesco o vínculos familiares. En este caso, la persona irá en primer lugar, como poseedor, y a continuación el parentesco que les une. ( Observa que Juan es un nombre propio y por tanto no hay artículo delante del nombre, entre Juan y sister no hay ningún artículo ni preposición)
Juan’s sister (La hermana de Juan)
Peter’s parents. (Los padres de Peter)
Cuando no hay posesión, relación familiar, o el poseedor no es ni persona ni animal, utilizamos la expresión OF (DE) (el poseedor sería una cosa o un lugar)
The door OF the room (La puerta de la habitación)
The Lord OF the rings (el señor DE los anillos)
FAMILY: RELATIVES
GRANDPARENTS: Grandfather – Grandmother (abuelos: abuelo/a)
PARENTS: Father – Mother (Padres: padre/madre)
CHILDREN: Son – Daughter (Hijos: hijo/a)
Brother/Sister ( Hermano/a)
Uncle /Aunt / Cousin ( Tio/a /primo/a)
Nephew /Niece (Sobrino/a)
Husband / Wife (Marido / mujer)
GRANDCHILDREN: Grandson – Granddaughter (Nietos: Nieto/a)
Se utiliza para expresar acciones que se realizan habitualmente, acciones que realizamos todos los días. Rutinas, hábitos.
Utilizaremos el verbo auxiliar TO DO,(que no se traduce),para las oraciones negativas e interrogativas. (DOES PARA LA 3ª PERSONA)
Las oraciones afirmativas no necesitan auxiliar, sin embargo añadiremos una S al verbo en la tercera persona del singular.
Suele ir acompañado de expresiones de tiempo como EVERYDAY y adverbios de frecuencia como ALWAYS, USUALLY, OFTEN, SOMETIMES, NEVER.
ORACIONES AFIRMATIVAS:
SUJETO + VERBO + COMPLEMENTOS
ORACIONES NEGATIVAS:
SUJETO + DON’T / DOESN’T + VERBO + COMPLEMENTOS
ORACIONES INTERROGATIVAS:
DO/DOES + SUJETO + VERBO + COMPLEMENTOS?
OFTEN: A MENUDO
NEVER: NUNCA
USUALLY: NORMALMENTE
SOMETIMES: A VECES
Tienen una posición fija dentro de las oraciones: Siempre se colocan delante del verbo principal, excepto con el verbo TO BE, con el que van detrás.
TIEMPOS VERBALES
PRESENTE
PRESENTE CONTINUO:
· Se forma con el VERBO TO BE + VERBO PRINCIPAL + ING
· Se utiliza para expresar acciones que se están realizando en este momento, en el momento en que estamos hablando, o periodos de tiempo que aún no han terminado (TODAY, THIS WEEK)
Va acompañado de expresiones de tiempo o adverbios como NOW, AT THE MOMENT, AT PRESENT.
ESTRUCTURAS:
AFIRMATIVAS:
SUJETO + TO BE+ VB+ING + COMPLEMENTOS:
Ej: I am learning English at the moment./ Estoy aprendiendo inglés en este momento.
NEGATIVAS:
SUJETO + TO BE+NOT+ VB+ING+COMPLEMENTOS:
Ej: We are not learning Chinese this year./ No estamos aprendiendo chino este año.
INTERROGATIVAS:
(WH- WORD) +VB TO BE+ SUJETO + VB + ING + COMPLEMENTOS:
Ej: Are you learning Italian now? /¿Estás aprendiendo Italiano ahora?
What are you doing? / ¿Qué estás haciendo?
(Observa que he colocado entre paréntesis la wh- Word, puesto que no siempre la necesitaremos para hacer preguntas )
-ING SPELLING/ ORTOGRAFIA -ING
· Verbos que acaban en –E: Pierde la E y añadimos –ing: Make – Making
· Verbos que acaban en – IE: IE se transforma en Y, añadimos ing: Die _ Dying
· Verbos de una sílaba formada por consonante – vocal –consonante: Doblan la última consonante y añaden – ing: Put – Putting
· Verbos que acaban en –Y y –W: Mantienen Y y W y añaden –ing: Enjoy-enjoying , snow – snowing.
PRESENTE SIMPLE:
Se utiliza para expresar acciones que se realizan habitualmente, acciones que realizamos todos los días. Rutinas, hábitos.
Utilizaremos el verbo auxiliar TO DO,(que no se traduce),para las oraciones negativas e interrogativas. (DOES PARA LA 3ª PERSONA)
Las oraciones afirmativas no necesitan auxiliar, sin embargo añadiremos una S al verbo en la tercera persona del singular.
Suele ir acompañado de expresiones de tiempo como EVERYDAY y adverbios de frecuencia como ALWAYS, USUALLY, OFTEN, SOMETIMES, NEVER.
ESTRUCTURAS:
ORACIONES AFIRMATIVAS:
SUJETO + VERBO + COMPLEMENTOS
Ej: I play football everyday. / Yo juego al fútbol todos los días.
* Recuerda añadir la S al verbo en la 3ª persona del singular, únicamente en las oraciones afirmativas.
Ej: He always drinks coffee for breakfast. / Él siempre bebe café para desayunar.
ORACIONES NEGATIVAS:
SUJETO + DON’T / DOESN’T + VERBO + COMPLEMENTOS
Ej: You don’t speak Spanish / Tú no hablas español.
He doesn’t play the piano./ Él no toca el piano.
* Como verás no hemos añadido S en la 3ª persona, ya que tenemos el auxiliar DOES.
ORACIONES INTERROGATIVAS:
DO/DOES + SUJETO + VERBO + COMPLEMENTOS?
Ej: Do you like chocolate? / ¿Te gusta el chocolate?
Does she read French books? / ¿Ella lee libros en francés?
* La respuesta corta para estas preguntas se forma con el sujeto, en forma de pronombre + el verbo auxiliar DO / DOES
Ej: Do you live in Madrid? Yes, I do / ¿Vives en Madrid? Sí, (yo vivo).
Does it rain here? No, it doesn’t. / ¿Llueve aquí? No, (no llueve).
ADVERBIOS DE FRECUENCIA:
ALWAYS : SIEMPREOFTEN: A MENUDO
NEVER: NUNCA
USUALLY: NORMALMENTE
SOMETIMES: A VECES
Tienen una posición fija dentro de las oraciones: Siempre se colocan delante del verbo principal, excepto con el verbo TO BE, con el que van detrás.
Ej: I never get up late. / Yo nunca me levanto tarde.
He is always happy. / Él está siempre feliz.
PASADO
PASADO DEL VERBO TO BE
AFIRMATIVA NEGATIVA INTERROGATIVA
I WAS I WAS NOT (WASN’T) WAS I?
I WERE I WERE NOT (WEREN’T) WERE I?
HE WAS HE WAS NOT (WASN’T) WAS HE?
SHE WAS SHE WAS NOT (WASN’T) WAS SHE?
IT WAS IT WAS NOT (WASN’T) WAS IT?
WE WERE WE WERE NOT (WEREN’T) WERE WE?
YOU WERE YOU WERE NOT (WEREN’T) WERE YOU?
THEY WERE THEY WERE NOT (WEREN’T) WERE THEY?
* Aparece con expresiones de tiempo como YESTERDAY,LAST WEEK,LAST MONTH, LAST YEAR.
ESTRUCTURAS:
ORACIONES AFIRMATIVAS
SUJETO + VERBO TO BE + COMPLEMENTOS
Ej: I was in England last month./ Estuve en Inglaterra el pasado mes.
ORACIONES NEGATIVAS
SUJETO + VERBO TO BE + NOT + COMPLEMENTOS
Ej: I was not in Germany last month. / No estuve en Alemania el pasado mes.
ORACIONES INTERROGATIVAS
VERBO TO BE + SUJETO + COMPLEMENTOS?
Ej: Were you in Japan last month? / ¿Estuviste en Japón el pasado mes?
PASADO SIMPLE
Se utiliza para expresar acciones puntuales en el pasado. Aparece con expresiones como YESTERDAY, LAST WEEK... Necesitamos el verbo auxiliar DID para las oraciones negativas e interrogativas. Existen dos tipos de verbos en inglés: Verbos regulares y verbos irregulares. Los verbos regulares forman el pasado añadiendo ED al infinitivo. Los verbos irregulares tienen una forma especial para el pasado (2ª columna de los verbos irregulares).
ESTRUCTURAS:
ORACIONES AFIRMATIVAS:
SUJETO + VERBO PASADO + COMPLEMENTOS.
Ej: I played tennis last Saturday. / Jugué al tenis el pasado Sábado
I went to the cinema last Sunday. / Fuí al cine el pasado Sábado
* Las oraciones afirmativas son las únicas que llevan el verbo en pasado, ya que no utilizamos verbo auxiliar.ORACIONES. NEGATIVAS:
SUJETO + DID NOT ( DIDN’T) + VB INFINITIVO + COMPLEMENTOS
Ej: I didn’t play tennis last Saturday. / No jugué al tenis el pasado Sábado.
I didn’t go to the cinema last Sunday. / No fuí al cine el pasado Sábado.
ORACIONES INTERROGATIVAS:
DID + SUJETO + VB INFINITIVO + COMPLEMENTOS?
Ej: Did you play tennis last Saturday? / ¿Jugaste al tenis el pasado Sábado?
Did you go to the cinema last Sunday? / ¿Fuiste al cine el pasado Sábado?
PASADO CONTINUO:
· Se forma con el pasado del verbo TO BE + Verbo principal con ing.
· Se utiliza para expresar acciones que se han desarrollado durante un periodo largo de tiempo en el pasado.
· Suele combinarse con el pasado simple dentro de la misma oración, la acción del verbo que va en pasado continuo es la que estaba teniendo lugar cuando se ve interrumpida por una segunda acción en
pasado simple.
Ej: I was watching TV when the telephone rang. / Estaba viendo TV cuando el telefono sonó
Past continuous (when) Past simple
ESTRUCTURAS:
ORACIONES AFIRMATIVAS:SUJETO + WAS/WERE + VB ING + COMPLEMENTOS:
Ej: I was having a bath when my father came in. / Estaba bañándome cuando mi padre entró.
ORACIONES NEGATIVAS:
SUJETO + WASN’T / WEREN’T + VB ING + COMPLEMENTOS:
Ej: I wasn’t driving very fast when the accident happened. /No estaba conduciendo muy rápido cuando ocurrió el accidente.
WAS / WERE + SUJETO + VB ING + COMPLEMENTOS?
Ej: Were you studying when I knocked on the door? /¿Estabas estudiando cuando llamé a la puerta?
COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES
COMPARATIVO DE IGUALDAD:
TAN …………………………………. COMO
AS + ADJETIVO + AS
Ej: Peter is as tall as Paul. (Peter es tan alto como Paul)
* Siempre que la segunda parte de la comparación sea un pronombre, este debe aparecer en la forma de pronombre objeto.
Ej: Sarah is as thin as him. / Sara es tan delgada como él.
COMPARATIVO DE SUPERIORIDAD:
MÁS ………………………….QUE
- Adjetivos de dos sílabas o menos.
ADJETIVO + ER + THAN
Ej: John is taller than Paul (John es más alto que Paul)
- Adjetivos de más de dos sílabas.MORE + ADJETIVO + THAN
Ej: Susan is more intelligent than Mary. (Susan es más inteligente que Mary)
SUPERLATIVO:
EL MÁS / LA MÁS……………………….
- Adjetivos de dos sílabas o menos.
THE ADJETIVO + EST
Ej: He is the tallest boy (El niño más alto)
* Si queremos indicar en que lugar es el que destaca ese adjetivo al que estamos refiriéndonos en grado superlativo utilizaremos la preposición IN THE, si es una expresión de tiempo utilizaremos OF THE.
Ej. Susan is the thinnest girl in the school./ Susan es la chica más delgada de la escuela.
This is the happiest day of my life. / Este es el día más feliz de mi vida.
- Adjetivos de más de dos sílabas:THE MOST + ADJETIVO
Ej: Peter is the most intelligent student in the classroom. Peter es el estudiante más inteligente de la clase.
Today is the most important day of the year./ Hoy es el día más importante del año.
ADJETIVOS IRREGULARES
Good -Bueno / Better-Mejor / The Best- el MejorBad-Malo / Worse-Peor / The Worst-el Peor
Far -Lejos Farther/ Further -Lejano The Farthest/ the furthest- el más lejano
PREPOSITIONS
Las traducciones van cambiando, eso se debe al componente cultural de los idiomas. Se consigue reconocer la estructura cuando se ha practicado y memorizado.
PREPOSICIONES DE TIEMPO:
IN:
· Con partes del día: In the morning, in the afternoon, in the evening / por la mañana, por la tarde, al aterdecer (crepusculo)
· Con meses: In January, in February.../ En Enero, en Febrero
· Con las estaciones del año: In winter, in spring…/ En invierno, en primavera
· Con años: In 1987/ en 1987
· Con siglos: In the 18th century / en el siglo XVIII
ON·
Con los días de la semana: On Monday, on Tuesday… / ( en Lunes, en Martes) el Lunes el Martes
· Con fechas: On 2nd of May / el 2 de Mayo
· Con días y partes del día: On Wednesday afternoon. / el Miercoles tarde (al anochecer)
· On holidays. / en vacaciones
AT
· Con las horas: At 7 o’clock / a las 7 en punto
· At Christmas, at Easter / en Navidad, Semana Santa.
· At night / por la noche
· At the weekend / en el fin de semana
· At the beginning, at the end / en el principio, al final
OTRAS PREPOSICIONES DE TIEMPO:
BEFORE: ANTESAFTER: DESPUES
UNTIL: HASTA
DURING: DURANTE ( DURING + SUSTANTIVOS: Se utiliza con expresiones que respondan a la pregunta WHEN?.
Ej: During the summer, during November/ durante el Verano, durante Noviembre.
FOR: DURANTE ( DURING + NÚMEROS + PERIODOS DE TIEMPO: Se utiliza con expresiones que respondan a la pregunta HOW LONG?.
Ej: For six months, for five minutes./ Durante 6 meses, durante 5 minutos
SINCE: DESDE
FROM …………….. TO: DESDE ……………. HASTA: Se utiliza tanto como preposición de tiempo como de lugar. Aquí tiene doble significado.
Ej: I lived in London from 1987 to 1989. / Yo viví en Londres desde 1987 hasta 1989.
There is one train from Madrid to Valencia at 7 o’clock. / Hay un tren desde Madrid hasta Valencia.
PREPOSICIONES DE LUGAR:
IN: EN / DENTRO DE: Con lugares cerrados
Ej: My coat is in the wardrobe/ Mi abrigo está en el armario.
AT: EN : Se utiliza para espacios abiertos, como referencia geográfica
Ej: There are new traffic lights at the crossroads. / Hay nuevos semáforos en los cruces.
ON: EN / ENCIMA (Tocando la superficie)
Ej: There are pictures on the wall. / Hay fotografías en la pared.
OTRAS PREPOSICIONES DE LUGAR:
NEXT TO: AL LADO DE
CLOSE TO: JUNTO A
NEAR: CERCA DE
FAR (AWAY FROM): LEJOS DE
BEHIND: DETRÁS
IN FRONT OF: DELANTE DE
OPPOSITE: ENFRENTE DE
OVER: ENCIMA DE ( Sin tocar la superficie)
UNDER: DEBAJO DE
INSIDE: DENTRO DE
OUTSIDE: FUERA DE
BETWEEN: ENTRE
AT HOME: EN CASA. Ej: I don’t go out, I stay at home. / No voy a salir, me quedo en casa.
IN BED: EN LA CAMA
GO HOME, GET HOME, COME HOME, REACH HOME,ARRIVE HOME (Observa que no utilizamos preposiciones con la palabra HOME acompañada de verbos de movimiento).
ARRIVE:
ARRIVE IN : Llegar a paises, ciudades....Ej: I arrived in London. / llegué a Londres.
ARRIVE AT: LLegar a espacios cerrados: estaciones, museos, Aeropuertos....
Ej: I arrived at the airport / Llegué al aeropuerto.
EXPRESIÓN DE CANTIDAD:
SOME: Algún, alguna, algunos, algunas.
Se utiliza en oraciones afirmativas. Acompaña a nombres incontables (singular) y nombres contables en plural.
Ej: There is some water in the fridge. Hay (algo de) agua en la nevera. Los hispanoparlantes no diríamos: hay algo de agua; usaríamos la frase "Queda algo de agua en la nevera."
There are some new students in the school. Hay nuevos estudiantes en la escuela. Aquí tampoco usaríamos la traducción literal porque queda muy forzado decir " hay algunos nuevos estudiantes..." no sería correcto.
ANY: Algún/a/os/as, ningún /a/os/as.
Se utiliza en oraciones negativas e interrogativas.
Acompaña a nombres incontables (singular) y nombres contables (plural)
Ej: There isn’t any apple juice in the cupboard. / No hay ninguna manzana en el frutero. Ocurre lo mismo que en el ejemplo anterior. Usaríamos la expresión "No quedan manzanas en el frutero".
Have you got any friends?/ ¿Tienes algún amigo?
SOME en oraciones interrogativas:
Aunque he indicado anteriormente que utilizamos ANY en oraciones interrogativas, existen algunas excepciones en las que utilizamos SOME para hacer preguntas:
· Cuando estamos ofreciendo algo:
Ej: Would you like some coffee? / ¿Quieres un cafe?
· Cuando pedimos algo:
Ej: Can I have some water, please? / ¿Puedo tomar (algo de) agua por favor?
· Se utiliza para expresar acciones que empezaron en el pasado y continúan en el presente, o si bien la acción ya ha acabado, el resultado de la misma lo vemos en el presente.
FUTURE
Hay dos tipos de futuro en inglés:
1) Futuro con WILL (que funciona como auxiliar, y se utiliza en o. afirmativas, negativas e interrogativas)
- Se utiliza cuando el sujeto no tiene control sobre el futuro.
- Para expresar decisiones tomadas en el momento.
- A través de este futuro expresamos imprevistos, predicciones, lo que el sujeto cree que ocurrirá.
- Aparece con expresiones de tiempo como TOMORROW, NEXT WEEK, NEXT MONTH, NEXT YEAR.
SUJETO + WILL + VB (INFINITIVO) + COMPLEMENTOS:
ORACIONES NEGATIVAS:
SUJETO + WILL NOT (WON’T) + VB (INFINIT)+COMPLEMENTOS:
ORACIONES INTERROGATIVAS:
WILL + SUJETO + VB(INFINITIVO) + COMPLEMENTOS?
2) Futuro con TO BE GOING TO
(el verbo To be es el que funciona como auxiliar, y es por tanto el que vamos a conjugar, se utiliza en o. afirmativas, negativas e interrogativas)
Utilizamos este tipo de futuro cuando el sujeto tiene control absoluto sobre la acción.
Es un futuro planeado de antemano, y para que esa acción se lleve o no a cabo, el sujeto ha tomado las medidas oportunas. Expresamos con este futuro intenciones y decisiones.
Predicciones basadas en hechos presentes.
SUJETO + TO BE + GOING TO + VB (INFINITIVO) + COMPLEMENTOS:
Ej: (I have this blue velvet) I am going to make a new dress.
(Tengo este terciopelo azul) Voy a hacerme un vestido Nuevo.
ORACIONES NEGATIVAS:
SUJETO + TO BE NOT + GOING TO + VB (INFINIT) + COMPLEMENTOS:
Ej: I am not going to make a new dress. / No voy a hacerme un vestido nuevo.
ORACIONES INTERROGATIVAS:
TO BE + SUJETO + GOING TO + VB (INFINIT) + COMPLEMENTOS?
Ej: Are you going to make a new dress? / ¿Vas a hacerte un vestido nuevo?
"Level advanced"
Compare these situations and read what I would say in each case: Use will / going to:
“You make your friend a cup of sweet coffee, then she tells you she doesn’t take sugar”. Offer to make her another one.
I’ll make you another cup of coffee ( Decisión tomada en el momento, es por eso que utilizamos futuro con WILL)
“ A colleague asks you why you have brought your sports kit to the office. “ Explain that you have arranged to play tennis after work.
I am going to play tennis after work ( Decisión tomada de antemano, por eso traes el equipo a la oficina, futuro con TO BE GOING TO)
PRONOMBRES RELATIVOS:
WHO: Que, el que... Antecedente de personas
WHICH: Lo cual... Antecedente de cosas o animales
WHERE: Donde... Antecedente de lugar
WHOSE: Cuyo...
* El antecedente y el pronombre relativo deben ir unidos.
Existen dos tipos de oraciones de relativo en inglés:
1) DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES:
La información aportada en la oración de relativo es imprescindible para que la oración tenga sentido.
La oración “She is the woman” no tiene sentido completo si no le añadimos más información.
Una vez que hemos añadido información al antecedente (woman) la oración tiene sentido completo.
- En las "defininig relative clauses" podemos sustituir el pronombre relativo por THAT, independientemente de que el antecedente sea de persona o de cosa.
2)NON DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES:
La información aportada en la oración de relativo no es imprescindible para la oración. Es información extra.
En la oración “My brother studies in London” tiene sentido completo, no sería necesario añadir ninguna información para poder comprender la oración.
My brother, who is very tall, studies in London. / Mi hermano, el que es muy alto, estudia en Londres.
Nunca podemos sustituir el pronombre relativo por THAT.
Las "non defining relative clauses" siempre van entre comas.
PASSIVE VOICE. (VOZ PASIVA)
En una oración activa en español encontramos los siguientes elementos:
En la oración pasiva:
El Complemento directo de la oración activa pasa a ser sujeto paciente.
El sujeto de la oración activa pasa a ser complemento agente (introducido por BY).
El verbo pasivo lo formamos con:
El verbo To be en el mismo tiempo que el verbo principal de la oración activa + el participio de pasado del verbo principal.
A continuación te presento cómo cambiar los tiempos verbales de activa a pasiva:
TENSES ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE
Simple present eat /eats is /are eaten
Present Continuous is /are eating is / are being eaten
Simple past ate was / were eaten
Past continuous was / were eating was / were being eaten
Present perfect have/ has eaten have/ has been eaten
Past perfect had eaten had been eaten
Future will eat will be eaten
Conditional would eat would be eaten
REPORTED SPEECH. (ESTILO INDIRECTO)
El estilo indirecto consiste en decir las palabras que otra persona ha dicho antes, para ello tendremos que empezar todas las oraciones en estilo indirecto con las frases “HE SAID TO ME o HE TOLD ME” (Él me dijo o él me contó).
Tendremos que cambiar los sujetos que aparezcan en las oraciones, de 1ª persona de singular a 3ª persona de singular y de 1ª persona de plural a 3ª de plural, así mismo hay que cambiar también todos los adjetivos y pronombres posesivos que aparezcan en las oraciones.
Por último todos los tiempos verbales (conjugados, no se cambian los verbos que estén en infinitivo o gerundio) que aparecen en la oración deben retrasarse un tiempo.
A continuación te presento una lista con los cambios de tiempo:
TENSES - DIRECT SPEECH REPORTED SPEECH
Simple present : I work Simple past: He said he worked
Present Continuous: I am working Past continuous: He said he was working
Simple past: I worked Past Perfect: He said he had worked
Present perfect: I have worked Past Perfect: He said he had worked
Future: I will work Conditional: He said he would work
Modal verbs: I can work Conditional: He said he could work
Como habrás comprobado hemos retrasado los tiempos, de esta manera tenemos también que cambiar todas las expresiones de tiempo y de lugar que aparecen en la oración.
TIME AND PLACE CHANGES:
Here There
This That
These Those
Now Then
Yesterday The day before, the previous day
Today That day
Tomorrow The following day, the day after
Last week, month… The week before, the month before….
Next week, month… The following week, the week after…
2 days ago 2 days before
QUESTIONS IN REPORTED SPEECH:
Ya sabes que hay dos maneras de hacer preguntas en inglés:
· Preguntas con verbo auxiliar: Do you live in Madrid?
· Preguntas con partícula interrogativa: Where do you live?
Debes recordar que una pregunta en estilo directo se convierte en una oración afirmativa una vez que la pasamos a estilo indirecto, por tanto seguirá la estructura de las oraciones afirmativas que ya conocemos (SUJ + VB + COMPLEMENTOS)
Los verbos introductorios con los que ahora vamos a empezar las preguntas en estilo indirecto son “ HE ASKED ME o HE WANTED TO KNOW”.
Dado que hay dos tipos de preguntas en inglés, hay dos maneras de pasarlas a estilo indirecto.
1.- Preguntas con auxiliar:
En las preguntas con auxiliar, después del verbo auxiliar utilizamos la expresión condicional IF, como te he dicho anteriormente pasa a ser una oración afirmativa, así añadimos el SUJETO + VERBO (comprueba que hemos retrasado los tiempos según la lista que te presenté anteriormente) + COMPLEMENTOS.
2.- Preguntas con partícula interrogativa:
En las preguntas con partícula interrogativa, después del verbo introductoria añadimos la partícula interrogativa correspondiente para después añadir el sujeto y el verbo en el tiempo correspondiente.
ORDERS IN REPORTED SPEECH:
Para dar órdenes en ingles utilizamos el imperativo. El imperativo es el único tiempo en inglés en el que no necesitamos sujeto en las oraciones.
Órdenes afirmativas:
VERBO + COMPLEMENTOS
Órdenes negativas:
DON’T + VERBO + COMPLEMENTO
Los verbos introductorios en este caso son: “HE ORDERED ME o HE TOLD ME”.
Órdenes afirmativas:
Órdenes negativas:
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. (ORACIONES CONDICIONALES)
Recuerda que en una oración condicional siempre hay dos partes.
En inglés hay tres tipos de oraciones condicionales:
CONDICIONALES DE TIPO 1 : PROBABLES
Hay un 100 % de posibilidades de que la condición se cumpla si se cumple una de las partes de la condición:
IF + PRESENTE / FUTURO
(La parte del IF puede ir al principio o al final, pero siempre seguido de presente si se trata de una condicional de tipo 1)
CONDICIONALES DE TIPO 2: IMPROBABLES
Las posibilidades de que se cumpla la condición se reducen a un 50%.
IF + PASADO SIMPLE / WOULD + INFINITIVO
IF + PASADO SIMPLE / COULD + INFINITIVO
CONDICIONALES TIPO 3: IMPOSIBLES
No existe ninguna posibilidad de que se cumpla la condición, la situación ha tenido lugar en el pasado y no hay posibilidad de cambiar el pasado.
IF + PAST PERFECT / WOULD HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE
INFINITIVE SIMPLE PAST PAST PARTICIPLE MEANING
BE WAS/WERE BEEN SER /ESTAR
BECOME BECAME BECOME LLEGAR A SER
BEGIN BEGAN BEGUN EMPEZAR
BREAK BROKE BROKEN ROMPER
BRING BROUGHT BROUGHT TRAER
BUILD BUILT BUILT CONSTRUIR
BUY BOUGHT BOUGHT COMPRAR
CHOOSE CHOSE CHOSEN ELEGIR
COME CAME COME VENIR
COST COST COST COSTAR
CUT CUT CUT CORTAR
DO DID DONE HACER
DRAW DREW DRAWN DIBUJAR
DRINK DRANK DRUNK BEBER
DRIVE DROVE DRIVEN CONDUCIR
EAT ATE EATEN COMER
FALL FELL FALLEN CAER
FEEL FELT FELT SENTIR
FIND FOUND FOUND ENCONTRAR
FLY FLEW FLOWN VOLAR
FORGET FORGOT FORGOTTEN OLVIDAR
GET GOT GOT CONSEGUIR
GIVE GAVE GIVEN DAR
GO WENT GONE IR
GROW GREW GROWN CRECER/PLANTAR
HAVE HAD HAD TENER
HEAR HEARD HEARD OIR
KNOW KNEW KNOWN SABER/CONOCER
LEAVE LEFT LEFT SALIR/MARCHARSE
LIGHT LIT LIT ENCENDER
LOSE LOST LOST PERDER
MAKE MADE MADE HACER
MEET MET MET QUEDAR/CONOCER
PAY PAID PAID PAGAR
PUT PUT PUT PONER
READ READ READ LEER
RIDE RODE RIDDEN MONTAR
RING RANG RUNG SONAR
RUN RAN RUN CORRER
SAY SAID SAID DECIR
SEE SAW SEEN VER
SELL SOLD SOLD VENDER
SEND SENT SENT ENVIAR
SING SANG SUNG CANTAR
SIT SAT SAT SENTARSE
SLEEP SLEPT SLEPT DORMIR
SPEAK SPOKE SPOKEN HABLAR
SPEND SPENT SPENT PASAR/GASTAR
STEAL STOLE STOLEN ROBAR
SWIM SWAM SWUM NADAR
TAKE TOOK TAKEN TOMAR/COGER
TEACH TAUGHT TAUGHT ENSEÑAR
TELL TOLD TOLD DECIR/CONTAR
THINK THOUGHT THOUGHT PENSAR
UNDERSTAND UNDERSTOOD UNDERSTOOD ENTENDER
WEAR WORE WORN LLEVAR PUESTO
WIN WON WON GANAR
WRITE WROTE WRITTEN ESCRIBIR
_______________________________________________________________
Present
I speak spanish Yo hablo español
Present conitunuous
I´m speaking spanish Yo estoy hablando español
Preent perfect
I have spoken spanish Yo he hablado español
Present perfect conrinuous
I have been speaking spanish Yo he estado hablando español
_________________________________________________________________
Past
I spoke spanish Yo hablé español
Past continuous
I was speaking spanish Yo estaba hablando español
Past perfect
I had spoken spanish Yo había hablado español
Past perfect continuous
I had been speaking spanish Yo había estado hablando español
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Modal verbs
Obligation
1.-Must:
must + infinitive is used for strong obligations which express the authority of the speaker or writer, it is used.
A.- For formal rules or laws
Passengers must fasten their seat belts for take-off.
B.- for suggestions, advice or recomendations that the speaker or writer feels strongly about:
You must come to my party. Everyone´s going to be there.
2.-Have to
have to + infinitive is used for strong obligations which express the authority of a third person, rather than that or the speaker or writer. it is used
A.- When the speaker wants to show they are no resposible for imposing the obligation, or does not agree with it:
I'll be late home tonight. I have to work late. My boss said so.
B.- When the speaker or writer is reminding someone about a rule or law:
I´m sorry, but you have to wear a seat belt in the back of cars too.
3.-have got to
have got to + infinitive is more informal than have to. It is often used.
A.-for direct commands:
You have got to stop wasting your money.
B.- for emphasis:
I don't care how hard I have to work, I have just got to pass the exam this time.
4.-need to
need to is used to express needs or necessities, rather than strict obligations:
I we´re going to work together, I need to know about your background and experience.
5.-negative forms
A.-mustn't expresses prohibition (negative rules and laws or strong advice):
Drivers must not exceed the speed limit.
You mustn't blame yourself. It 's not your fault.
B.-do not have to / have not got to express lack of obligations or necessity:
You don't have to wear a uniform, but you can if you like.
C.-do not need to /needn't + infinitive are used to express lack of obligation or necessity and are similar in meaning to do not have to:
There are no lessons tomorrow, so I don´t need to get up early.
You needn't tell me your phone nunber if you don't want to.
D.- did not need to + infinitive means it was not necessary, but we did it in spite of this:
We had to wait for half and hour on the platform because the train was delayed. We needn't have hurried after all.
Permission and prohibition
1.-can/ can't
This is one of the commonest ways of expressing permission and prohibition:
Can I use the phone, please?
In Spain you can't leave school until the age of 16.
**May I ...? means the same as Can I ...? but is more formal and more polite.
2.-Other expressions of permission and prohibition
A.-be allowed to + infinitive
You're allowed to buy lottery tickets when you're 18.
B.-be permitted to + infinitive:
We were only permitted to take photographs in certain places.
C.- let + infinitive without to:
my parents let me stay out late at weekends.
3.- Other expressions of prohibition
You aren't allowed to go abroad without a passport.
Smoking is not permitted in most cinemas.
You are not permitted to smoke in this theatre.
People are forbiddeen to smoke on the Underground.
The workers have been prohibited from striking.
Nigel has been banned from driving for six months.
Present tenses
Present simple
1.- The present simple is used to refer to habitual or routine actions:
Most people work from ) 9.00 am. to 5.00 pm. and have three or four weeks holiday a year.
My father leaves home at 7 o`clock and commutes to work.
The present simple is also used to refer to facts that are always true:
Rivers flow to the sea.
Water boils at 100 ºC
2.- Time expressions used with present simple werbs. These are some of the expressions of time and frequency used with present simple verbs:
always, every day / week, etc., every so often, most weekends, never, occasionally, often, rarely, sometimes, twice a week, usually.
The shops in our town always close at 7 o´clock in the evening.
I never sleep more than six hours a night.
Notice where these words and phrases can be used in sentences:
.- I always /hardly ever / never / occasionally / rarely / sometimes / usually wear big clothes.
.- Every day / Every so often /Most weekends / Occasionally / Sometimes / Usually I wear bring clothes.
.- I wear bright clothes every day / every so often / most weekends / occasionally / sometimes / usually.
Present continuous
1.- The present continuous is used to refer to current trends or on-going situations:
We're staying with friends while our house is repaired.
I'm reading War and Peace at present.
The present continuous is also used to refer to actions taking place at the moment of speaking:
Paul's cooking lunch at the moment. Could you ring back this afternoon, please?
2.- Time expressions used with present continuous verbs.
These are some of the expressions of time and frequency used with present continious verbs:
at present, at the moment, currently, now, this week, today.
Currently, they're working on new antibiotics.
Notice where these words and phrases can be used in sentences:
My sister is currently / now appearing in a new production of a shakespeare play.
Currently, / At present, / At the moment, / This week, / Today, my sister is appearing in a new production of a shakespeare play.
My sister is appearing in a new production of a shakespeare play / at present / at the moment / This week / Today.
** Always can be used with present continuous verbs to mean ''again and again'' or "too frequently".
I'm always loosing my keys.
3.- verbs which are not normally used in the continuous form the following groups of verbs, wich describe states or conditions rather than actions, are not normally used in the continuous form:
.-verbs refering to being: appear, seem, exist, consist of, look, mean, resemble.
.-verbs referring to having: own, belong, contain, hold, possess, have.
.-verbs referring to opinions: agree, beleieve, disagree, expect, hope, know, realize, think, understand
.-verbs referring to feelings: dislike, fear, hate, like, love, regret, respect, trust.
.-verbs referring to senses: feel, hear, taste, see, smell.
** Many of these verbs can also be used to refer to actions. In this case, they can be used to refer to actions. In this case, they can be used in the continuous form.
Examples:
I have three brothers. (have = a state verb) / I'm having a shower. ( have = an action verb).
She spects to get that job. ( expect = a state verb) / she's specting a baby ( expect = an action verb).
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Ability
1.-can and be able to
can and be able to are the verbs most commonly used to talk about ability. Sometimes it is possible to use either verb without changing the meaning of the sentence. Sometimes, we have to use be able to as there is no appropriate form of can.
can
infinitive be able to
present can or am / are / is able to
future will be able to
past could or was / were able to
present perfect have / has been able to
past parfect had been able to
2.- present ability
To talk about a general ability in the present, both forms are possibe, but can is more usual.
Gareth can run very fast
(Gareth is able to run very fast)
To talk about a general ability in the present, can is more usual.
Know how to can be used as an alternative to can.
Can you play chess?
Do you know how to play chess?
3.-Future ability
To talk about an ability in the future, we use the future form of be able to.
Will I be able to play better after I've had some lessons?
4.-Past ability
To talk about a general ability in the past, both forms are possible:
Before his accident, Ben could jump really high.
Before his accident, Ben was able to jump really high.
To talk about an ability to do something in the past on one particular occasion, it is not possible to use could. We must use the past tense of be able to or manage ( + infinitive) or succeed ( + in + -ing):
Although she had lost a lot of blood, the doctors were able to save the girl's life.
Despite the difficult conditions, the surgeons managed to perform the operation successfully and succeeded in saving the man's leg.
**If the event was unsuccessful, it is possible to use couldn't as well as the past forms of be able to, manage and succeed.
Although he did his best, he couldn't finish it in time.
5.-"Conditional" ability
To talk about a hypotetical ability in the present or future, we can use could or would be able to:
I could probably jump further if I had longer legs.
I would probably be able to play better if I practise more.
To talk about a hipothetical ability in the past, we usually use could + have + past participle, although we can also use would have been able to:
Even if he'd been taller, he couldn't have reached it.
Even if he'd been taller, he wouldn't have been able to reach it.
6.- Other structures used to talk about ability
To talk about aptitude and capacity for doing something, we can use be capable of + -ing:
He is certainly capable of breaking the world record.
To talk about how well we do something, we can use the structure be good (brilliant, etc.) / bad (terrible, etc) at + noun or gerund:
I have never been good at sports.
I am particularly bad at running.
Comparative and superlative adjectives and adverbs.
Adjectives
1.-Regular adjectives with one syllable
Adjective Comparative Superlative
tall taller the tallest
large larger the largest
big bigger the biggest
**A.-Adjectives ending in two consonants or two vowels and a consonant, add -er / -est: long, short, bright, smooth, cool, clean, great.
B.- Adjectives ending in -e, add -r / -st : nice, late, safe, strange, rude, wide.
C.- Many adjectives ending in a single vowel + single consonant, double the consonant and add -er / -est : fat; thin; flat; sad; wet.
2.-Regular adjectives with two or more syllables
Adjective Comparative Superlative
heavy heavier the heaviest
modern more modern the most modern
important more important the most important
common more common / the most common/
commoner the commonest
**
A.-Adjectives ending in -y, change y to "i" and add -er / -est: happy, dirty, funny, tidy, busy, early, empty, dry.
B.- Most longer adjectives use more and the most:
comfortable, independent, insignificant, uninteresting
C.- Some two-syllable adjectives can form their comparatives and superlatives in two ways; by adding -er/ -est or with more and most : clever, pleasant, gentle, narrow, shallow, simple, tired.
3.- Irregular adjectives
Adjective Comparative Superlative
good better the best
bad worse the worst
old elder/older the eldest/ the oldest
far further / farther the furthest / the farthest
*only for people; especialy people in the family
I have three brothers. The eldest, Ian, is a musician.
4.-Comparative and superlative adjectives in context
A.- more / -er + than
I'm taller than my brother.
My brother's more serious than me.
I'm more intelligent than he is / him.
** If the pronoun after than is not followed by a verb, use the object pronoun form - me, him, us, them, etc.
If the pronoun after than is followed by a verb, use the subject pronoun form - I, he, we, they, etc.
B.- The most / -est
I'm the tallest student inthe class.
My sister's the most intelligent student in the school.
C.- less + than / the least
That film was less interesting than the last one I saw.
It was the least interesting film I've seen all year.
5.- Qualifying comparative adjectives
.-Use these words and phrases to refer to big differences:
far, a lot, much, considerably, not nearly as...as.
Cars are considerebly faster and far more comfortable than bicycles.
.-Use these words and phrases to refer to small differences: a bit, a little, slightly.
The weather's a bit hotter than it was yesterday.
.-Use these words and phrases to refer to no differences:
just, no.
It's no warmer than it was yesterday.
It's just as cold today as it was yesterday.
Adverbs
1.-Regular and irregular adverbs
A.-The majority of comparative and superlative adverbs are formed like this:
Adverb comparative Superlative
slowly more slowly the most slowly
B.- Irregular adverbs are formed like this:
adverb comparative Superlative
well better the best
badly worse the worst
little less the least
much more the most
C.- Adverbs which are the same as adjectives:
Adverb comparative Superlative
fast faster the fastest
hard harder the hardest
Other adverbs of this kind include: far, long, loud, straight.
2.-The + comparative + the
This construction links two actions or situations - when one thing happens, another thing follows. A comparativ expression in the first clause is balanced by a comparative expression in the second clause. Several gramatical patterns are possible here:
.-Adjective... adjective
The harder a job is, the more rewarding I find it.
.-Adverb... adverb
The sooner we start, the quicker we'll finish.
.-Adjective... adverb, or adverb... adjective.
The easier a job is, the more quickly I do it.
.- more (+ noum) ... more (+noun)
The more money Jack earned, the more clothes he bought.
.-less (+ clause) ... less (+uncountable noun) / fewer (+ plural countable noun)
The less Bob earned, the less food/ the fewer holidays he could afford.
.-more (+clause) ... less (+clause)
The more you sleep, the less you do.
Other combinations of these patterns are possible.
ex: The harder Joe worked, the more he earned.
The more he ate, the fatter he got.
**
A.-Neither of the two clauses in the + comparative + the sentences makes sense without the other.
B.-In writting, a comma is used to separate the two clauses.
C.- Both clauses need a verb.
D.- In some expressions with better, no verbs are needed.
Jim: when shall I come round to see you?
Tim: The sooner, the better.
Other comparative constructions
1.- as...as
This construction can be used with adjectives or adverbs to make comparisons between two things or people.
I'm as tall as my brother.
Trains don't travel as fast as planes.
In negative sentences so can be used instead of the first as.
Cats aren't so friendly as dogs.
2.- comparative + and + comparative
This construction can be used with adjectives or adverbs to refer to a trend.
Towards the end of the film, I became more and more frightened.
As the exams approached, I worked harder and harder.
Over the last twenty years, televisions have become less and less expensive.
3- Extreme adjectives
Ordinary Extreme
cold freezing
angry furious
Hungry starving
Most adjectives can be used with very or really and in the comparative form with even for emphasis.
Yesterday was very / really cold, but today is even colder.
**really is more informal than very
Extreme adjectives cannot be preceded by very or in the comparative by even. If you want to emphasize them, you must use absolutely or really.
I was absolutely / really forious.
** You cannot use absolutely with ordinary adjectives.
/(today is absolutely cold (wrong))/
Today is absolutely freezing. correct
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Describing habitual actions
Habitual actions in the present
1.- Present simple
This is the usual way of expressing present habitual actions.
Whenever I go to town, I spend too much money.
Tend to + infinitive.
The verb tend to + infinitive can be used to refer to usual or generally occurring actions.
She tends to get up late weekends.
2.- Other ways of expressing habitual actions in the present
A.-Present continuous + always
This is used mainly to refer to actions wich are too frequent
She's always giving me presents.
It is also used when you are annoyed with youself or someone else.
You're always complaining about my cooking.
B.- will + infinitive
This can be used instead of the present simple to refer to behaviour which is predictable or typical.
I`ll sit for hours watching TV.
C.- keep + -ing
This is used for habitual actions which are accidental or annoying.
I keep bumping my head on that tree.
Habitual actions in the past
1.-Past simple
When a past simple verb refers to habitual or repeated actions it can be accompanied by a frequency expression.
When I worked in London, I usuallu got home at six o'clock.
2.- used to + infinitive
This refers to habitual past actions which no longer happen.
Before I had a car, I used to cycle to work.
It can also be used for actions that did not happen before, but happen now.
Ididn't use to have foreing holidays. Now I go abroad every year.
We never used to watch TV at breakfast time.
**Remember the question form of used to.
Where did you use to go for your holidays?
**Sentences with used to do not need frequency adverbs, but they are sometimes included for emphasis.
I always used to be late for school.
3.-Would + infinitive
This refers to habitual past actions.
Every summer our parents would take us to the seaside.
Do not use would in questions and negative sentences, as its meaning can be completely different.
**There is a difference in meaning between used to and would.
A.-Used to can refer to permanent situations as well as habitual actions.
I used to be able to see the church from my bedroom window.
B.-Would can only refer to actions, not situations. You can say:
He'd catch the 7.30 train.
but you cannot say:
He'd work in London
4.- used to, be used to and get used to
used to has three forms with different meanings.
.-Used to + infinitive
this refers to habitual past actions.
My father used to get up at 5 a.m.
.-be used to + -ing
This means "to be accustomed to"
I must go to bed early. I´m used to having ten hours sleep a night.
.- get used to + -ing
This means "to become accustomed to", often to something unusual or strange.
If you come to England, you'll have to get used to driving on the left-hand side of the road.
**Other common verbs which follow the same pattern are look forward to and object to.
Countable and uncountables nouns
Countable nouns
1.-Countable nouns are nouns wich have singular and plural forms.
Computer (s), television (s), man/men, child/ children, parent (s).
Singular countable nouns are used with the following:
a/ an, the, one, this, that
The man over there is wearing a black hat.
2.-Countable nouns are used with the following qualifiers:
a few, a lot of, all the, enough, few, lots of, many, most of the, no, none of the, plenty of, several, some, two /three, these, those.
Most of the children had plenty of toys.
Uncountable nouns
1.- Uncountable nouns are nouns that do not have a plural form.
advice, equipment, furniture, information, milk, money, music, paper, research, time, water
Uncountable nouns are used with the following:
a little, a lot of, all the, enough, little, lots of, most of the, no, not much, plenty of, some, the
we have lots of money left, but not enough time to spend it.
2.- Making uncountable nouns countable
to make uncountable nouns countable, use words like these:
piede, bit, box, kilo, piece, loaf, glass, sheet, item, cup, etc.
I'd like a cup of tea and two pieces of toast, please.
Would you mind me giving you a piece of friendly advice?
3.- Nouns which can be countable and uncountable.
Some nouns can be countable and uncountable, but the meaning is different depending on the context.
Look at those fluffy lambs.
I'm not keen on lamb; Ijust don't like the taste.
James got the job because of his wide experience.
I've just had a most incredible experience.
Would you like some wine?
Bordeaux is a French wine.
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The future
There are many ways of talking about future time in English. This is a summary of the most common forms and their uses.
1.- Present continuous
The present continuous is used to refer to future actions or events which have already been arranged.
Are you doing anything interesting at the weekend?
We're spending the summer with our friends in Greece.
2.- will future
Future simple (will + infinitive)
The will future is used to talk about:
.-Future facts
The sun will rise at 6.30 tomorrow morning
.-Predictions or expectations.
I expect Helen and John will be late again.
.-Strong intentions.
When Loretta retires, I'll definitely apply for her job.
.-Instant decisions about the inmediate future.
The phone's ringing. I'll answer it.
.-offers
I'll take you to the airport if you like.
3.- Future conditions (will + be + ing)
This form is used to talk about:
.- Events or actions that will be in progress at specific time in the future.
This time tomorrow, I'll be travelling through France.
.- Predicted or expected trends.
In the twenty-second century, people will be living to the age of 130.
4.- Future perfect simple (will + have + past participle) and Future perfect continuous (will + have + been + -ing). These two forms are used to talk about:
.-actions or events that will already be completed by a particular time in the future.
By the year 2012, I'll have left school and started work.
.-the continuous nature of actions and events in the future.
On saturday we'll have been living here for three years.
** A.- Shall is sometimes used instead of will after I and we.
In a few days we shall have forgotten about accident.
B.- Shall must be used to start questions which are suggestions and offers.
Shall we phone to see what time the film starts?
Shall I carry that heavy case for you?
5.- be going to + infinitive
This is used to talk about:
.-Intentions, plans or resolutions.
After Christmas, I'm going to get a job and save up.
What are you going to do when you leave school?
.-Predictions based on present evidence or knowledge.
My nose is tickling. I'm going to sneeze.
My sister's going to have a baby.
6.- Present simple
This tense is used to talk about scheduled, timetable or fixed events.
The class starts at 9 o'clock tomorrow morning.
7.- Other ways of referring to the future.
.-be (just) about to + infinitive
This is used to talk about actions or events which we spect to happen in the immediate future.
we'd better hurry - The train is just about to leave.
.- be on the point of + -ing.
This expression also refers to the inmediate future.
I'm on the point of going out. Could you phone bach later, please?
.-be likely / unlikely to + infinitive
This is used to refer to probable or improbable actions or events.
we're likely / unlikely to see Ian before next week.
.-be bound to + infinitive
This is used to refer to actions or events which you think are certain to happen
The police are bound to discover who broke in eventually.
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Past time
We use the past simple tense when we want to refer to an action or event which is finished and:
1.-Took place in a specific time and place in the past:
Monica went to London in 2014.
2.-Took place over a specific period in the past:
She lived in london between 2014 and 2015.
3.-Was habitual during a specific period in the past.
When Monica lived in London, she ate dinner about 9.45 pm.
*A past time reference must either be geben or understood from the context.
Past contiuous
We use the past contuous to indicate:
1.-A continuous event in the past (wich may or may not de unfinished).
Andrew was working for his uncle when I first met him.
2.-A temporary event in the past wich was in progress before another event took place.
I 'll always remember what I was doing when i heard the dreadful news.
3.-An event wich started before another event in the past and continued.
When Neil and Sarah eventually turned up, all the other gests were already eating their desert.
4.-Simultaneous, continuous action in the past.
While I was trying to phone her, she was trying to phone me.
5.-Repeated actions occurring over a period of time in the past
Before I moved into my flat, I was always arguing with my parents.
Present perfect
Simple: we use the present perfect simple tense when we wnt to talk about:
1.-An event whinch started in the past, continues in the present and may continue into the future.
My parents have been married for twenty years.
2.-A recent event in the past wich has relevance to the present
A man has appeared in court charged with the murder of the missing person.
3.-A event wich happened in the past without saying when it happened (because we do not consider this is important).
Have you seen Samantha?
I have read Hamlet, but I have never seen it performed.
4.-An event wich happened in the past but in unfinished time (with expressions like today, this month, this year)
I didn't see Josh last week, but I've been out with him twice already this week.
Continuous: We use this form:
1.-To emphasize the continuity and duration of the event.
The Smiths have been living in the same house ever since they got married.
2.-To indicate that a continuous activity in the recent past is responsible for a present situation. This activity may or may not be unfinished.
I'm not crying- I've been peling onions.
*The following verbs can be in the present perfect or the present continuous tense with no real change of meaning, although the continuous form is often preferred: live, wait, drive, smoke, work, stay, study, rain.
I've driven since I was eighteen.
I've been driving since I was eighteen.
Past Perfect
Past perfect simple
1.-we use it to indicate a past event or situation wich ocurred before another past event or situation.
I'd been awake for quite a while before the alarm rang.
Although I arrived on time, Mike had already left.
Note: A time conjunction sometimes replaces the past perfect to show which of the two past events occurred first. In this case both events can be in the past simple tense.
Alex phoned me before he left.
Past perfect continuous
1.-we use the continuous form when we want to emphasize the continuity and duration of an event.
Richard had been trying to get a job for over a year before he was offered his present one.
Participle clauses
A participle clause contains a present participle (seeing), a past participle (seen) or a perfect participle (having seen). It can be used:
1.-To indicate two events happening at the same time. It can replace a time clause.
Walking down the high Street on Saturday, I saw Paul.
(replaces As/ When/ While I was walking...)
2.-To indicate a sequence of events.
Raising their glasses, they wished Darren a happy birthday.
3.-To indicate a reason. It can replace a reason clause.
Not understanding Albert's question, I was unable to give him an answer.
(replaces because / Since I didn't understand...)
Having spent my money on a car, I couldn't afford a holiday.
(replaces Because/ Since I had spent...)
* The subject of the participle must also be the subject of the otrer verb. It is not possible to say: "Having a bath, the phone rang".
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Reporting speech
Direct speech
We can report what someone has said in two ways.
.-We can report their actual words.
.-We can report the idea they expressed.
When we report a person's actual words in writing, we use speech marks and an appropriate verb, eg, say, tell, ask.
I'll be late home tomorrow, Bob said.
Reported speech
When we report the idea and not the actual words a person says we often make changes. These changes are usuallu to verb tenses, pronouns, word order and time and place references.
1.- Reporting statements
Changes in verb tenses
when the reporting verb is in the past tense, eg. said, we usually move the tenses in the sentence we are reporting one step back in time.
DIRECT SPEECH REPORTED SPEECH
Present simple Past simple
"I'm a nurse", she said She said she was a nurse
Present continuous Past continuous
"I'm not going", he said He said he wasn't going
Past simple Past Perfect
"Tony did it", she said She said Tony had done it
Present Perfect Past Perfect
"I haven't read it",she said She said she hadn't read it
Past continuous Past Perfect Continuous
"I was living", he said He said he'd been living
Will Future Would
"I will get it", she said She said she would get it
Can Could
"I can speak english", he said He said he could speak english
May Might
"I may be late", she said She said she might be late
Must Had to
"I must go", he said He said he had to go
*The past perfect and the modals might, ought to, could, should and would do not change in reported speech.
2.- No changes in verb tenses:
When the reporting verb is in the present tense eg. says, we do not change the tense of the original verb. For example:
.-When we are reading what someone has said in a newspaper or letter:
Darren says he's been too busy to write before.
.-Or when we are passing on a message:
Lucy says she'll be late.
.-When the reporting verb is in the past tense and we want to emphasize that the statement is still true, we can keep the same tense.
"Bill is my cousin" She said Bill is her cousin.
3.- Changes in time and place references.
Some typical changes that may have to be made are:
Direct speech Reported speech
Today That day
Tomorrow The next day, the following day
Yesterday The previous day, the day before
Two days ago Two days before, Two days earlier
Now Then
Here There
Come Go
Unless time and place words are reported at the same time and in the same and in the same place as they were originally said, they change.
"Marie phoned yesterday". (said on Monday)
He said that Marie had phoned two days ago / on Sunday. (said on Tuesday).
4.- Other Changes
Pronouns may change when we are reporting speech. This depends on who is reporting.
"I'll give you a lift" (Jack to Barbara).
Jack said he would give me a lift. (Barbara to someone else)
The determiners this, that, these, those may change to the.
"These jeans are too tight", Jessica said.
Jessica said the jeans were too tight.
The pronouns this and that may change to it.
"Give me that!" Jayne said.
Jayne told me to give it to her.
5.- Reporting verbs
We can use the verbs say and tell to report statements. The structure after these verbs is:
.- Say (that) + clause:
Richard said (that) he would be late.
.- And tell someone (that) + clause:
Richard told me (that) he would be late.
*The word that is frequently omitted in spoken English.
6.- Reporting questions
We make the same changes to verb tenses, time and place references and pronouns as we do when we report statements. We also change the form of the original question into a statement and therefore omit auxiliary verbs (do, does, did) and question marks.
"When are you arriving?"
He asked me when I was arriving.
If there is no question word in the original, we must use if or whether.
"Do you understand?"
He asked her if / Wheter she understood.
To report questions we can use the verb ask or the structure want to know if.
"Are you enjoying yourself?" Mr Johnes asked.
Mr Johnes wanted to know if I was enjoying myself.
7.- Reporting advice, commands, requests and warnings. We can report these kind of speech using the verbs advise, tell, ask and warn + personal object pronoun + infinitive.
.- Advice
"You really should stop!"
She advised me to stop.
.- Command
"Don't interrupt me!"
He told me not to interrupt him.
.- Request
"Could you close the door please?"
She asked me to close the door.
.-Warning
"If you tell anyone, I'll ...!"
She warned me not to tell anyone.
**A
The structure after ask is different depending on whether we are reporting a request or a question.
"Can you remind me, please?" request
She asked me to remind him.
"Can you come tomorrow?" question
She asked me if I could come the next day.
**B
The structure after tell is different depending on whether we are reporting a command or a statement.
"Come on! Hurry up! command
She told us to hurry up.
"It doesn't start till eight." statement
He told us (that) it didn't start until eight.
8.- Reporting suggestions
We can report suggestions with the verb suggest + clause. For example, to report "Let's stay in":
She suggested that we (should) stay in.
She suggested that we stayes in.
She suggested staying in.
*You can not use the infinitive after suggest.
So / Such
We use so and such to add emphasis.
Everyone was so friendly.
They were such friendly people.
1.- So is used with
.-adjectives and adverbs.
Our journey was so quick.
Our journey went so quick.
.-much / little (+ uncountable noun).
I didn't realiza we had so much time.
She didn't realize she had so little money left.
.-many / few ( + plural countable noun).
So many people applied for thet job, but there were so few jobs avalaible.
2.- Such is used with
.- a + adjective + singular noun.
We saw such a good film last night.
.-adjective + plural countable noun / uncountable noun.
Everyone was wearing such bright clothes.
We had such dreadful weather on our holiday.
.- a lot (of) + plural countable noun / uncountable noun.
We had such a lot of things to do, we didn't know where to start.
He won such a lot of money on the lottery that he could afford a luxury apartament.
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Passive verbs
1.- Verbs that can be used in the pasive. Most transitive verbs can be used in the pasive. A trasitive verb is a verb wich takes an ogject, e.g. catch.
The police caught the thief.
Intransitive verbs cannot be used in the passive. An intransitive verb is a verb wich does not take an object : fall.
Rodney fell and hurt his leg.
2.- Form of the passive. The passive is formed with the verb be in the appropriate tense + the past participle of the main verb. In the case of modals e.g. Could and must, it is formed with the modal + be + past participle.
Tense Subject Verb be Past participle
Present Letters are delivered
simple twice a day
Present the suspect is being questioned by
continuous the police
Past simple The programme was first broadcast in 1998
Past continuous Our hotel room was being cleaned when we arrived
Present perfect My car has been stolen
Past perfet They had been warned about the danger
Future You will be paid on friday
Modal verbs This meat must be cooked for at least an hour
3.- Choosing the active or the passive form.
.-In an active sentence, the subject is the person or thing that does the action.
Barcelona beat Manchester United.
.-In a passive sentence, the subject of the verbis the person or thing affected by the action.
Manchester United were beaten by Barcelona.
When we want to focus on the person or thing affected by the action instead of the performer of the action (the agent), we use the passive.
4.- Including the agent (performer or doer).
When we use the passive we can choose whether to include the agent or not. The agent is the person or thing who/ which performs the action.
The record is held by Carl Lewis.
We do not need to include the agent when:
A.- The agent is not important. So, we do not need to say:
Trespassers will be prosecuted by the landowner.
B.- We don't know who the agent is and so would have to use the words somebody or a person. We do not need to say:
My car has been stolen by somebody.
C.- When the agent is obvious. So, we do not need to say:
The tief was sentenced to five years imprisionment by the judge.
D.- When the agent has already been mentioned. So, we do not need to say:
Someone of Stephen King's books have been written by him under the pseudonym Richard Bachman.
**In informal English get can sometimes be used instead of be to form the passive. The agent is not generally mentioned.
Nigel got stopped for speeding.
5.- Verbs with two objects
Some verbs can have two objects: a direct object and an idirect object.
Lady Markham´s late husband gave the painting (OD) to the gallery (OI).
Lady Markham´s late husband gave the gallery (OI) the painting (OD).
Either of the two objects can be the subject of the passive verb.
The painting was given to the gallery by her late husband
The gallery was given the painting by her late husband.
When one of the objects is a person, it is more usual for this to be the subject.
Bobby was given a new bike for his birthday.
6.- Passive constructions with the infinitive
When we want to pass on information but we do not know whether the information is true or not, or we do not want to say where the information came from, we can use the passive form of these verbs: think, believe, report, consider, know, say, expect + infinitive.
when the information is about a present situation, we use the passive + infinitive.
The Queen is thought to be one of the richest people in the world.
Mr Smith is believed to be staying with friends.
When the information is about something in the past, we use the passive + infinitive (have + past participle).
The ship is reported to have sunk. Many people are thought to have drowned.
7.- Have / Get something done (causative).
Caustive verbs have something done and get something done are used to refer to actions which are done FOR the subject rather than BY the subject. Caustive verbs are used instead of passive verbs to show that the subject causes the action to be done.
1.- have something done
I don't know how to repair cars, so i'm having mine repaired at the gerage round the corner.
2.- get something done
I really must get my eyes tested. I'm sure i need glasses.
Get you hair cut!
** Have something done is slightly more formal than get something done.
Get is more frequent than have in the imperative form.
Non causative uses of have and get:
Have and get are also used to refer to events which happened to someone, but were outside their control:
The company was in financial difficulty so I had my pay reduced.
The fire spread so quickly that I got my legs burnt.
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Gerunds and infinitives
Certain verbs, adjectives and prepositions must always be followed by the gerund; others must alwais be followed by the infinitive. Some verbs, however, can be followed by either.
Gerunds
Gerunds are verbs that are like nouns. They are formed by adding -ing to the verb and can be used in four ways:
A: as the subject of a clause or sentence
eating out can be expensive.
B: as the object of a clause or sentence
One of my interests is collecting antiques.
C: After some verbs
.-After verbs expressing likes and dislikes (see below the gerund or the infinitive: B)
I don't enjoy seeing you like this.
.-After other verbs such as: admit, appreciate, avoid, can't help, consider, delay, deny, finish, forgive, give up, imagine, involve, keep, mind, miss, postpone, put off, prevent, report, resist, risk, suggest.
Have you considered buying a new one?
D: After prepositions
.-After all prepositions.
It is for opening bottles.
.-After adjective + preposition combinations such as: nervous / worried about, bad / good / clever / skilled at , sorry / responsible for, interested in, capable / affraid / frightened / terrified of, bored with.
I'm interested in applying for the job.
.-After verb + preposition combinations such as: warn someone about, apologize for,arrest someone for, succeed in, congratulate someone on, insist on, be / get used to, look forward to, object to.
My little brother insisted on coming with me.
The infinitive
The infinitive with to
.- It is always used after certains vebs: Afford, agree, arrange, ask, appear, attempt, choose, decide, expect, help, hope, intend, learn, manage, offer, pretend, promise, refuse, seem.
I can't afford to go on holiday this year.
.- The infinitive is always used after certain adjectives: amazed, certain, difficult, disappointed, easy, free, glad, happy, likely, pleased, possible, simple, sure, surprised.
The recipe is simple to follow.
The gerund or the infinitive
Some verbs can be followed by the gerund or the infinitive.
A: with no change of meaning.
The verbs start, begin, continue, can be followed by either the gerund or the infinitive, without changing the meaning of the sentence.
Jeff continued to overeat / overeating despite the doctor's advice.
B: With a slight change of meaning
The meaning of the verbs like, prefer, hate, love, changes slightly, depending on whether the gerund or infinitive follows them.
The gerund is more usual for general statements when the emphasis is on the enjoyment (or not ) of the action.
Mary prefers eating out to eating at home.
The infinitive is more usual for more specific statements where extra information is given.
Jane prefers to eat out because there's no washing-up to do.
* Whit the verb like + infinitive there is often the added meaning of a preferred alternative.
I like to drive there may imply "I prefer that means of transport to going by train or coach".
C: with a change of meaning:
The verbs try, stop, regret, remember, forget, mean, go on; can be followed by the gerund or the infinitive, but with a change in meaning.
D: Verbs where there is a change of meaning according to whether the gerund or the infinitive is used after them.
Try.
.- + gerund = to experiment in order to achive an objective.
Try going to bed earlier and see if that helps.
.- + infinitive= to attempt a difficult action.
Sophie is been trying to get a job since she left school, but with no success.
Stop
.-+ gerund= to finish an activity
Stop talking and get on with you work!
.- + infinitive=to interrupt one activitiy in order to do another
Roger stopped (what he was doing) to have a cup of tea.
Regret
.- + gerund= to be sorry about an action in the past.
Many people regret marrying young.
.- + infinitive= to be sorry about what you are going to say.
Dr. Taylor regrets to say that she is unable to see patients without an appointment.
Forget / Remember
.- + gerund= to (not) recall an action.
I distinctly remember asking them to come after lunch.
I won't forget being at the Olympic Games as long as I live.
.- + infinitive= to (not) do an action you must do
Ann remembered to lock all the doors when she went on holiday, but she forgot to close the bathroom window.
Go on
.- + gerund= to continue an action
I'll go on applying for jobs intil I'm successful.
.- + infinitive= to finish one activity and start another.
After 7 years of study, Andy went on to become a doctor.
Mean
.- + gerund= to involve
Dieting ussually means giving up sweet things.
.- + infinitive= to intend
I meant to send you a postcard, but I couldn't remember your address.
The verbs of perception see (watch, notice, tec,) feel, hear, smell have a different meaning when thay are followed by the infinitive (without to) or a participle.
.- + participle= to experience part of an event
I noticed a man acting in a strange way.
.- + infinitive without to= to experience the whole event
I heard my sister come in at 1 am.
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Relative Clauses
A relative clause is used to add extra information. Instead of giving the information in two sentences, we can combine the two pieces of information in one sentence using a relative clause.
The man was so boring. He sat next to me the whole journey.
The man who sat next to me the whole journey was so boring.
Relative pronouns
1.- A relative clause starts with a relative pronoun: who (whom), wich, that, whose, where, when, why; or no relativepronoun.
2.- The chronicle of relative pronoun depends on whether:
.-The relative clause is defining or non-defining.
.-It refers to a person or a thing.
.-It is the subject or object of the relative clause.
A.- Defining B.-Non-defining
person thing person thing
1.- Subject Who/that which/that who which
2.- Object (0) / Who(m) (0)/which who(m) which
that that
3.- Possessive Whose Whose Whose Whose
** A.- Who and which are more usual than that in writing.
B.- Whom is very formal and is used mainly in writting.
Defining and non-defining relative clauses
1.- Defining clauses
The information given in a defining relative clauses is essential to the meaning of the sentence. it makes clear wich person or thing we are talking about. For example, if we omit the relative clause in this sentence, we don't know wich man the speaker is talking about.
The man who came to the wedding dressed in jeans is Simon's brother.
The defining relative clause gives us this information.
2.- Non-Defining clauses
The information given in a non-defining relative clause is not essential to the meaning of the sentence. If we omit the relative clause, it is still clear who we are talking about.
Mr White (who has been head teacher at the school for 40 years, is retiring at the end of term.
** A.- Defining relative clauses are common in spoken and written English. However, non-defining relative clauses are less common in spoken English.
B.- In non defining relative clauses, which can refer back to a whole clause.
He climbed the mountain wearing only a T-shirt and jeans, wich was a stupid thing to do.
(The fact that he climbed the mountain wearing only a T-shirt and jeans was a stupid thing to do).
C.- Commas are put before and after the non-defining relative clause, unless this is also the end of the sentence.
We stayed at the Carlton, which is a five-star hotel in the city center.
3.- Where, when, why
A.-Where can introduce a defining or non-defining relative clause which follows the world "place" or any noun which refers to a place, for example, "house", "restaurant", "road".
Wendy was brought up in Scotland, where she was born, but later emigrated to Australia.
If you visit Yorkshire, it is worth visiting the house where the Brontes lived.
B.-When can introduce a defining or non-defining relative clause wich follows the world "time" or any noun which refers to a period of time, for example, "year", "century", "winter".
June is the month (when) many couples get married in the UK.
The town is quieter after lunch, when everyune is having a siesta.
C.-why can introduce a defining relative clause after the world "reason".
Do you know (the reason) why Kate's changed her mind?
4.- Relative clauses and prepositions
A.-Informal use
.-In spoken English and informal written English, prepositions usually come at the end of the relative clause.
The hotel which we stayed al while we were in London is very expensive.
.-In informal defining relative clauses the pronoun is usually omitted.
The man (0) I spoke to gave me different information.
The letter (0) you refer to has not been answered to my satisfaction.
B.- Formal use
.-In formal written English, prepositions usually come before the relative pronoun.
The Savoy Hotel, at which many celebrities stay when they are in the capital, is very expensive.
.-In formal defining relative clauses with prepositions we use whom to refer to people and which to refr to things. The pronoun cannot be omitted.
The Hotel manager, to whom I spoke about the problem, suggested I write you.
The fact that the Hotel was undergoing renovation during our stay, about which we had not been informed, completely ruined our holiday.
5.- Relative clauses after numbers and certain words
A.- Non-defining relative clauses can be introduced by a number + of + the following words: all, any, both, each, either, (a) few, many, most, much, neither, none, some.
They are followed by the relative pronoun whom for people and which for things.
Dozens of people had been invited, ten of whom I knew. I fell asleep during the lecture, most of which was incomprehensible.
B.- Defining relative clauses can be introduced by the following words: all, any(thing), every(thing), (a) few, little, many, much, no(thing), none, some(thing) and superlative adjectives.
We usually use the relative pronoun that after these words. When the relative pronoun is the object of the relative clause, that is commonly omitted.
It was something that could have happened to anyone.
It was the most difficult exam (that) I've ever taken.
6.- Omitting pronouns from relative clauses (0)
Omitting relative pronouns is common in spoken or informal written English in
A.- Defining relative clauses when the relative pronoun is the object of its clause.
The party (0) I went to last night didn't finish till late.
The tree (0) the council cut down by mistake was over fifty years old...
Do you know the reason (0) they've decided to put off the wedding?
August is the month (0) most people take their annual holiday.
B.- Defining relative clauses with a form of the verb be, when both the "be" part of the verb and the relative pronoun can be omitted. This is sometimes called a "reduced" relative clause.
The man /(who is)/ standing on his own over there is Amy's brother.
The car /(which was)/ used in the robbery was discovered abandoned in a nearby field.
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Wishes, regrets and preferences
Whish
We use wish to talk about situations we would like to change but can't, either because they are outside our control or because they are in the past. The tense of the verb after wish does not correspond to the time we are talking about; it changes. The verb tense is one step back in time (as in reported speech).
1.- A Wish about a present or future situation is expressed with a past tense:
Situation Wish
I am an only child. I wish I wasn't an only child.
I can't drive I wish I could drive.
Rod isn´t comming to the party I wish Rod was comming
**In formal English we say: I, he, she, it: Were/ Weren't
2.- A wish about a past situation is expressed with a past perfect tense:
Situation Wish
I've lost my best pen. I wish I hadn't lost it.
I didn't remember. I wish I'd remembered.
3.- Wish ... Would:
We use sish and would:
.-When we want to complain about a present situation:
Situation Wish
A dog is barking. I wish that dog would stop barking!
The road is icy. I wish you wouldn´t drive so fast.
** We can't say I wish I would... Refering to ourselves we have to say I wish I could...
.-When we are impatient for an event outside our control to happen:
Situation Wish
You're waiting for the bus I wish the bus would come.
** It is not possible to use wish...would with the verb "be" unless we are complaining. We say "I wish it were Friday" and not "I wish it would be Friday".
Other structures to express wishes and regret:
A.-If we want a future event to happen or not happen, and this event is possible and not just a desire, we use the verb hope to present simple.
I hope I pass my exams.
B.-If only can often be used in places of wish to express a slightly stronger sense of regret.
I wish Sue was here/ if only Sue was here, she'd know what to do.
C.- I'd rather
We use would rather to express a preference
1.-About our own actions.
.-If we are referring to a present situation, we use would rather + infinitive without to.
I'd rather be rich than poor.
.-If we are referring to a past situation, we use would rather + perfect infinitive.
I'd rather have lived 100 years ago than now.
2.-About someone else's actions.
.-If we are referring to a present situation, we use would rather + past simple.
I'd rather you came tomorrow / I'd rather you didn't come on wednesday.
.-If we are referring to a past situation, we use would rather + past perfect.
I'd rather you hadn't told me / I'd rather you had kept it to youself.
D.- It's time
We use the expresion it's time and it's high time to show that we think something should happen soon. We use the past tense to refer to the present or the future:
My hair is rather long. It's time I got it cut.
He's over thirty. It's high time he settled down and got himself a proper job!
We use the expression it´s time + infinitive to show that the moment for something to happen has come:
It's 5 o'clock. It's time to go home. (we normally finish at 5 o'clock).
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Conditional sentences
There are four main types of conditional sentence. Each type has a distinctive pattern of verb tenses, and its own meaning.
Zero conditional:
Form:
If + present + present simple imperative
Meanings
This type of sentence is used for conditions which are aleays true.
If Mike reads on the train, he feels sick. (Every time Mike reads on the train, the same thing happens: he feels sick.)
This type of sentence is also used for scientific facts.
If you put paper on a fire, it burns quickly.
It is also used to give instructions.
If the phone rings, answer it.
In Zero or present conditional sentences when or Whenever can be used instead of if.
First conditional:
Form:
If + present simple + future will.
Meaning:
This type of sentence is used to predict likely or probable results in the future, if a condition is met.
If we don't leave now, we'll miss the train.
If we leave now, we won't need to hurry.
First conditional sentences are often used to express persuasion, promises, warnings and threats.
If you pass your exams, we'll give you a job.
If you don't turn that music down, you'll go deaf.
Some modal verbs can be used instead of will
If we leave now, we may catch the train.
If you come to London again, you must call and see us.
Second conditional:
Form:
If + past simple + would / could / might.
Meaning:
This type of sentence is used to speculate about imaginary or improbable situations; the implication is that the conditions will not be met.
You'd feel healthier if you did more exercise.
If you went to Africa, you'd have to have several injections.
(it's not likely you'll go to Africa, but it is possible).
Second conditional sentences can also refer to unreal situations.
If people didn't drive so fast, there wouldn't be so many fatal accidents. (actually, people do drive fast and there are a lot of fatal accidents.)
If I were taller, I'd play basketball. (Being taller is impossible for me).
Second conditional sentences are often used to express advice.
If I were you, I wouldn't drive so fast.
might / could
Might and Could can be used instead of would in the main clause of second conditional sentences to show uncertainly.
If you did more exercise, you might feel healthier.
Third conditional
Form:
If + past perfect ... would / might / could have + past participle
Meaning
This type of sentence looks back at the past and speculates about possibilities which didn't happen.
If I'd had your adress, I'd have sent you a postcard. (I didn't have your address, so I didn´t send you a postcard).
You might not have crashed into the bus if you'd been driving more slowly.
** When the "if" clause comes before the main clause, it is followed by a comma. When the "if" clause comes after the main clause, there is no comma between the clauses.
Mixed conditional sentences
Form
if + past perfect ... Would / could / might
Meaning
This type of sentence, which is a mixture of a third conditional sentence and a second conditional sentence, links a completed past action with a present result.
If I hadn't broken my leg, I would go on holiday with you.
I'd have a better job now, if I'd worked harder when I was at school.
Other ways of introducing conditions
unless
Unless can sometimes be used instead of " if not".
Unless we leave now, we'll miss the train. (if we don't leave now, we'll miss the train)
as long as
As long as is used to emphasize a condition.
I'll lend you the money you need as long as you promise not to waste it.
provided (thet)
Provided (that)... and Providing (that) ... mean "on condition that" and are slightly more formal than if.
You can come on holiday with us provided (that) you do some.
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Probability and posibility
Expressing near certainly
If we are almost certain that something is or is not the case, and this certainty is based on evidence, we can make statements using must or can't.
**Can't (not mustn't ) is the negative of must.
1.- To talk about a present situation we use must or can't + infinitive without to.
My doctor must be married. She wears a wedding ring. (I am almost certain she is married)
Angus can't have a lot of money. He's been out of work for over a year. (I am almost certain he doesn´t have a lot of money).
We can also use the continuous form of the verb.
Virginia must be wondering where I am. I said I'd be there at 3 p.m. and ir's now 5 p.m.
John can't be coming. He would be here by now if he was.
2.- To talk about a past situation we use must or can't + have + past participle.
Sandra must have passed her driving test because I saw her driving a car on her own. (I am almost certain they didn't enjoy their holiday).
We can also use the continuous form of the verb.
I´m sorry I'm late. You must have been waiting for ages!
You can't have been listening very carefully because I did say tomorrow, not today.
Expressing possibility
If we are not certain that something is the case but we think it is possible, we can make statements using may / might or could.
1.- To talk about a present situation we use could, may, might + infinitive without to.
Paula could / might / may be on holiday. (perhaps she's on holiday)
Claude could / might/ may not want to come with us. It is possible he doesn't want to come with us).
We can also use the continuous form of the verb.
Julie could / might / may be visiting her mother.
2.- To talk about a past situation we use may, might, could + have+ past participle.
Freda could /may / might / have overslept. (It is possible that she's overslept).
*The lorry driver couldn't have cause the accident.)
We can also use the continuous form of the verb.
The missing girl may have been wearing a blue skirt.
**A.-There is no real deference in meaning between may, might and could in affirmative sentences.
B.- The negative forms of may and might are may not and might not. These are not usually contracted.
C.- The negative form of could is couldn't. Its meaning is similar to can't, which means it can only be used to express near certainty Not possibility:
He can't /couldn't be lying. (I am almost certain he isn't lying)
Articles
The definite article THE
Three of the main uses of the definite article are to refer to:
A.- something that has been mentioned before.
Bill: -I've got a dog.
Ben: -What´s the dog's name?
B.- something there is only one of in a particular context.
The Queen spent three days in Wales.
Soon after we'd taken off, the pilot welcomed us on board.
C.- something the speaker and listener both know about.
The film was really good - Thanks for recommending it.
It is also used in these ways:
D.- with superlative constructions.
She's the fastest runner in Europe.
E.- with adjectives used as nouns referring to groups of people.
There's one law for the rich and another for the poor.
F.- with the names of oceans, seas, rivers, mountain ranges.
The Atlantic, the Thames, the Alps
G.- with the names of some countries and groups of islands.
the United States, the United Kingdom, the West Indies.
The indefinite article a / an
These are the main uses of the indefinite article:
A.- to refer to something for the first time.
I've got a dog.
B.- te refer to a person or thing (but not a special person or thing).
Can I have a drink please? Tea, cofee, ber, I don't mind.
C.- to refer to a person's job.
Alan is a telephone engineer.
D.- with numbers.
A hundred, a million.
Zero article (0)
These are the main contexts in wich no article is used:
A.- With plural countable nouns with general meaning.
(0) Professional footballers are paid too much money.
B.- With uncontalble nouns with general meaning.
He used to drink a lot of (0) coffee, but now he drinks only (0) tea.
They fell in (0) love while they were in Spain.
C.- with the names of towns, cities, states and most countries.
(0) New York, (0) Texas, (0) Greece
D.- with nouns for certain places or situations.
Suzy went into (0) hospital yesterday.
on (0) deck, at (0) home, on (0) holiday, to (0) Church, at (0) school, at (0) university.
MUCH: MUCHO: NOMBRES INCONTABLES
( No se utiliza habitualmente en oraciones afirmativas)
Ej: I haven’t got much money. / No tengo mucho dinero.
MANY: MUCHO: NOMBRES CONTABLES.
(Se utiliza en todo tipo de oraciones)
Ej: I have got many books. / Tengo muchos libros.
TOO MUCH / TOO MANY: DEMASIADO
HOW MUCH / HOW MANY? ¿CUÁNTOS?
A LOT OF: MUCHO: CONTABLES E INCONTABLES:
( Se utiliza en todo tipo de oraciones)
LITTLE: POCO: NOMBRES INCONTABLES.
A LITTLE: ALGO, POCO PERO SUFICIENTE
FEW: POCO: NOMBRES CONTABLES.
A FEW: ALGO, POCO PERO SUFICIENTE.
TIEMPOS VERBALES / VERB TENSES:
PRESENTE PERFECTO /PRESENT PERFECT:
· Se forma con el verbo TO HAVE (que funciona como verbo auxiliar) + el participio de pasado del verbo principal. ( Recuerda que hay dos tipos de verbos en inglés: verbos regulares, que forman el participio añadiendo –ed al infinitivo, y verbos irregulares, en este caso el participio de pasado es la tercera columna de la lista de verbos.
· Se forma con el verbo TO HAVE (que funciona como verbo auxiliar) + el participio de pasado del verbo principal. ( Recuerda que hay dos tipos de verbos en inglés: verbos regulares, que forman el participio añadiendo –ed al infinitivo, y verbos irregulares, en este caso el participio de pasado es la tercera columna de la lista de verbos.
· Se utiliza para expresar acciones que empezaron en el pasado y continúan en el presente, o si bien la acción ya ha acabado, el resultado de la misma lo vemos en el presente.
ESTRUCTURAS:
ORACIONES AFIRMATIVAS: PRESENTE + PRESENT PERFECT
SUJETO + HAVE/HAS + PARTICIPIO PASADO VB + COMPLEMENTOS:
Ej: I work in a bank. I have worked there for 10 years.
(Trabajo en un banco. He trabajado allí durante 10 años)
ORACIONES NEGATIVAS:
SUJETO + HAVEN’T / HASN’T + PART. PASADO VB + COMPLEMENTOS
Ej: She is reading a book. She hasn’t finished it yet.
(Ella está leyendo un libro. No lo ha terminado todavía)
ORACIONES INTERROGATIVAS:
HAVE / HAS + SUJETO + PART. PASADO VB + COMPLEMENTOS?
Ej: Have you ever been to London? /¿Has estado alguna vez en Londres?
Suele aparecer con expresiones de tiempo como SINCE, FOR ( En respuesta a preguntas con HOW LONG?)
Ej: I have worked here since 1976 / He trabajado desde 1976
How long have you met him? I have met him for several years.
/¿Cuanto tiempo hace que le conoces? Le he conocido desde hace bastantes años.
La traducción no es literal, pero es lo más aproximada posible.
tenemos el mismo problema, no diríamos "le he conocido desde hace..." nosotros diríamos "le conozco desde hace bastantes años".
tenemos el mismo problema, no diríamos "le he conocido desde hace..." nosotros diríamos "le conozco desde hace bastantes años".
Otras expresiones de tiempo que aparecen con el PRESENT PERFECT:
JUST: ACABO DE
Se utiliza en oraciones afirmativas y va colocado delante del verbo principal.
Ej: Have you seen Paul? He has just arrived (¿Has visto a Paul? Acaba de llegar.
ALREADY: YA
Se utiliza en oraciones afirmativas y va colocado delante del verbo principal:
Ej: Would you like to see Titanic? I’m sorry, I’ve already seen it.
(¿Te gustaría ver Titanic? Lo siento, ya la he visto)
YET: TODAVIA NO
Se utiliza en oraciones negativas, y va colocado al final de la oración:
Ej: Have you read the book? No, I’m sorry, I haven’t started it yet.
(¿Has leído el libro? No, lo siento, no lo he empezado todavía.
EVER: ¿ALGUNA VEZ?
Se utiliza en oraciones interrogativas, va colocado delante del verbo principal:
Ej: Have you ever tried Japanese food? No, not yet.
(¿ Has probado alguna vez la comida japonesa? No, todavía no.
SOMEBODY/ SOMEONE ( ALGUIEN) y SOMETHING (ALGUNA COSA) son 3ª persona del
singular, tienen que ir por tanto seguidos de HAS.
PASADO PERFECTO / PAST PERFECT:
Se forma con HAD (para todas las personas) + el participio de pasado del verbo principal (recuerda los verbos regulares e irregulares) Se utiliza para expresar acciones pasadas que terminaron antes de que otra acción pasada empezara. Suele combinarse por tanto con el pasado simple, encontraremos entonces dos acciones:
1ª: Acción terminada: Past Perfect
2ª: Acción que empezó cuando ya había acabado la anterior: Simple Past
Ej: The concert had started /when/ we arrived at the theatre.
El concierto había empezado /cuando/ llegabamos al teatro.
El concierto había empezado /cuando/ llegabamos al teatro.
Past Perfect /Simple Past
ESTRUCTURAS:
ORACIONES AFIRMATIVAS:
SUJETO + HAD + PARTICIPIO PASADO VB + COMPLEMENTOS:
Ej: I arrived at the airport when the plane had taken off.
(Llegué al aeropuerto cuando el avión había despegado)
ORACIONES NEGATIVAS:
SUJETO + HADN’T + PARTICIPIO PASADO VB + COMPLEMENTOS:
Ej: The shop hadn’t closed when I arrived.
( La tienda no había cerrado cuando llegué).
ORACIONES INTERROGATIVAS:
HAD + SUJETO + PARTICIPIO PASADO VB + COMPLEMENTOS?
Ej: Had you finished the book when you gave it back?
(¿Habías acabado el libro cuando lo devolviste?)
FUTURE
Hay dos tipos de futuro en inglés:
1) Futuro con WILL (que funciona como auxiliar, y se utiliza en o. afirmativas, negativas e interrogativas)
- Se utiliza cuando el sujeto no tiene control sobre el futuro.
- Para expresar decisiones tomadas en el momento.
- A través de este futuro expresamos imprevistos, predicciones, lo que el sujeto cree que ocurrirá.
- Aparece con expresiones de tiempo como TOMORROW, NEXT WEEK, NEXT MONTH, NEXT YEAR.
ESTRUCTURAS:
ORACIONES AFIRMATIVAS:SUJETO + WILL + VB (INFINITIVO) + COMPLEMENTOS:
Ej: It will rain tomorrow . ( Lloverá mañana)
ORACIONES NEGATIVAS:
SUJETO + WILL NOT (WON’T) + VB (INFINIT)+COMPLEMENTOS:
Ej: It will not rain tomorrow. ( No lloverá mañana)
ORACIONES INTERROGATIVAS:
WILL + SUJETO + VB(INFINITIVO) + COMPLEMENTOS?
Ej: Will it rain tomorrow? ( ¿Lloverá mañana?)
2) Futuro con TO BE GOING TO
(el verbo To be es el que funciona como auxiliar, y es por tanto el que vamos a conjugar, se utiliza en o. afirmativas, negativas e interrogativas)
Utilizamos este tipo de futuro cuando el sujeto tiene control absoluto sobre la acción.
Es un futuro planeado de antemano, y para que esa acción se lleve o no a cabo, el sujeto ha tomado las medidas oportunas. Expresamos con este futuro intenciones y decisiones.
Predicciones basadas en hechos presentes.
ESTRUCTURAS:
ORACIONES AFIRMATIVAS.SUJETO + TO BE + GOING TO + VB (INFINITIVO) + COMPLEMENTOS:
Ej: (I have this blue velvet) I am going to make a new dress.
(Tengo este terciopelo azul) Voy a hacerme un vestido Nuevo.
ORACIONES NEGATIVAS:
SUJETO + TO BE NOT + GOING TO + VB (INFINIT) + COMPLEMENTOS:
Ej: I am not going to make a new dress. / No voy a hacerme un vestido nuevo.
ORACIONES INTERROGATIVAS:
TO BE + SUJETO + GOING TO + VB (INFINIT) + COMPLEMENTOS?
Ej: Are you going to make a new dress? / ¿Vas a hacerte un vestido nuevo?
"Level advanced"
Compare these situations and read what I would say in each case: Use will / going to:
“You make your friend a cup of sweet coffee, then she tells you she doesn’t take sugar”. Offer to make her another one.
I’ll make you another cup of coffee ( Decisión tomada en el momento, es por eso que utilizamos futuro con WILL)
“ A colleague asks you why you have brought your sports kit to the office. “ Explain that you have arranged to play tennis after work.
I am going to play tennis after work ( Decisión tomada de antemano, por eso traes el equipo a la oficina, futuro con TO BE GOING TO)
ORACIONES DE RELATIVO. (RELATIVE CLAUSES)
PRONOMBRES RELATIVOS:
WHO: Que, el que... Antecedente de personas
WHICH: Lo cual... Antecedente de cosas o animales
WHERE: Donde... Antecedente de lugar
WHOSE: Cuyo...
* El antecedente y el pronombre relativo deben ir unidos.
Existen dos tipos de oraciones de relativo en inglés:
1) DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES:
La información aportada en la oración de relativo es imprescindible para que la oración tenga sentido.
La oración “She is the woman” no tiene sentido completo si no le añadimos más información.
She is the woman who lives next door. / Ella es la mujer que vive en la puerta siguiente.
Una vez que hemos añadido información al antecedente (woman) la oración tiene sentido completo.
- En las "defininig relative clauses" podemos sustituir el pronombre relativo por THAT, independientemente de que el antecedente sea de persona o de cosa.
2)NON DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES:
La información aportada en la oración de relativo no es imprescindible para la oración. Es información extra.
En la oración “My brother studies in London” tiene sentido completo, no sería necesario añadir ninguna información para poder comprender la oración.
My brother, who is very tall, studies in London. / Mi hermano, el que es muy alto, estudia en Londres.
Nunca podemos sustituir el pronombre relativo por THAT.
Las "non defining relative clauses" siempre van entre comas.
PASSIVE VOICE. (VOZ PASIVA)
En una oración activa en español encontramos los siguientes elementos:
My father builds houses
Sujeto Verbo C. Directo
En la oración pasiva:
El Complemento directo de la oración activa pasa a ser sujeto paciente.
El sujeto de la oración activa pasa a ser complemento agente (introducido por BY).
El verbo pasivo lo formamos con:
El verbo To be en el mismo tiempo que el verbo principal de la oración activa + el participio de pasado del verbo principal.
Houses are built by my father.
Sujeto Paciente Vb pasivo C. Agente
A continuación te presento cómo cambiar los tiempos verbales de activa a pasiva:
TENSES ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE
Simple present eat /eats is /are eaten
Present Continuous is /are eating is / are being eaten
Simple past ate was / were eaten
Past continuous was / were eating was / were being eaten
Present perfect have/ has eaten have/ has been eaten
Past perfect had eaten had been eaten
Future will eat will be eaten
Conditional would eat would be eaten
REPORTED SPEECH. (ESTILO INDIRECTO)
El estilo indirecto consiste en decir las palabras que otra persona ha dicho antes, para ello tendremos que empezar todas las oraciones en estilo indirecto con las frases “HE SAID TO ME o HE TOLD ME” (Él me dijo o él me contó).
Tendremos que cambiar los sujetos que aparezcan en las oraciones, de 1ª persona de singular a 3ª persona de singular y de 1ª persona de plural a 3ª de plural, así mismo hay que cambiar también todos los adjetivos y pronombres posesivos que aparezcan en las oraciones.
Por último todos los tiempos verbales (conjugados, no se cambian los verbos que estén en infinitivo o gerundio) que aparecen en la oración deben retrasarse un tiempo.
A continuación te presento una lista con los cambios de tiempo:
TENSES - DIRECT SPEECH REPORTED SPEECH
Simple present : I work Simple past: He said he worked
Present Continuous: I am working Past continuous: He said he was working
Simple past: I worked Past Perfect: He said he had worked
Present perfect: I have worked Past Perfect: He said he had worked
Future: I will work Conditional: He said he would work
Modal verbs: I can work Conditional: He said he could work
Como habrás comprobado hemos retrasado los tiempos, de esta manera tenemos también que cambiar todas las expresiones de tiempo y de lugar que aparecen en la oración.
TIME AND PLACE CHANGES:
Here There
This That
These Those
Now Then
Yesterday The day before, the previous day
Today That day
Tomorrow The following day, the day after
Last week, month… The week before, the month before….
Next week, month… The following week, the week after…
2 days ago 2 days before
QUESTIONS IN REPORTED SPEECH:
Ya sabes que hay dos maneras de hacer preguntas en inglés:
· Preguntas con verbo auxiliar: Do you live in Madrid?
· Preguntas con partícula interrogativa: Where do you live?
Debes recordar que una pregunta en estilo directo se convierte en una oración afirmativa una vez que la pasamos a estilo indirecto, por tanto seguirá la estructura de las oraciones afirmativas que ya conocemos (SUJ + VB + COMPLEMENTOS)
Los verbos introductorios con los que ahora vamos a empezar las preguntas en estilo indirecto son “ HE ASKED ME o HE WANTED TO KNOW”.
Dado que hay dos tipos de preguntas en inglés, hay dos maneras de pasarlas a estilo indirecto.
1.- Preguntas con auxiliar:
Ej:He asked me IF I lived in Madrid. / El me preguntó si vivía en Madrid.
En las preguntas con auxiliar, después del verbo auxiliar utilizamos la expresión condicional IF, como te he dicho anteriormente pasa a ser una oración afirmativa, así añadimos el SUJETO + VERBO (comprueba que hemos retrasado los tiempos según la lista que te presenté anteriormente) + COMPLEMENTOS.
2.- Preguntas con partícula interrogativa:
Ej:He asked me WHERE I lived./ Él me preguntó DÓNDE vivía
En las preguntas con partícula interrogativa, después del verbo introductoria añadimos la partícula interrogativa correspondiente para después añadir el sujeto y el verbo en el tiempo correspondiente.
ORDERS IN REPORTED SPEECH:
Para dar órdenes en ingles utilizamos el imperativo. El imperativo es el único tiempo en inglés en el que no necesitamos sujeto en las oraciones.
Órdenes afirmativas:
VERBO + COMPLEMENTOS
Ej:Open the door
Órdenes negativas:
DON’T + VERBO + COMPLEMENTO
Don’t close the window
Los verbos introductorios en este caso son: “HE ORDERED ME o HE TOLD ME”.
Órdenes afirmativas:
Ej: He ordered me TO open the door. / El me ordenó abrir la puerta.
Órdenes negativas:
EJ: He ordered me NOT TO close the window./ El me ordenó no cerrar la ventana.
Recuerda que en una oración condicional siempre hay dos partes.
En inglés hay tres tipos de oraciones condicionales:
CONDICIONALES DE TIPO 1 : PROBABLES
Hay un 100 % de posibilidades de que la condición se cumpla si se cumple una de las partes de la condición:
IF + PRESENTE / FUTURO
Ej:If you phone me I will go to the cinema./ Si (tu) me llamas (yo) iré al cine
(La parte del IF puede ir al principio o al final, pero siempre seguido de presente si se trata de una condicional de tipo 1)
CONDICIONALES DE TIPO 2: IMPROBABLES
Las posibilidades de que se cumpla la condición se reducen a un 50%.
IF + PASADO SIMPLE / WOULD + INFINITIVO
Ej:If I knew your address I would visit you. / Si conociese tu dirección te hubiera visitado.
IF + PASADO SIMPLE / COULD + INFINITIVO
Ej:If I had money I could travell all over the world. / Si tuviese dinero podría viajar alrededor del mundo.
CONDICIONALES TIPO 3: IMPOSIBLES
No existe ninguna posibilidad de que se cumpla la condición, la situación ha tenido lugar en el pasado y no hay posibilidad de cambiar el pasado.
IF + PAST PERFECT / WOULD HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE
Ej:If you had studied more you would have passed the exam.
Si hubieras estudiado más hubieses aprobado el examen.
IRREGULAR VERBS / VERBOS IRREGULARES
INFINITIVE SIMPLE PAST PAST PARTICIPLE MEANING
BE WAS/WERE BEEN SER /ESTAR
BECOME BECAME BECOME LLEGAR A SER
BEGIN BEGAN BEGUN EMPEZAR
BREAK BROKE BROKEN ROMPER
BRING BROUGHT BROUGHT TRAER
BUILD BUILT BUILT CONSTRUIR
BUY BOUGHT BOUGHT COMPRAR
CHOOSE CHOSE CHOSEN ELEGIR
COME CAME COME VENIR
COST COST COST COSTAR
CUT CUT CUT CORTAR
DO DID DONE HACER
DRAW DREW DRAWN DIBUJAR
DRINK DRANK DRUNK BEBER
DRIVE DROVE DRIVEN CONDUCIR
EAT ATE EATEN COMER
FALL FELL FALLEN CAER
FEEL FELT FELT SENTIR
FIND FOUND FOUND ENCONTRAR
FLY FLEW FLOWN VOLAR
FORGET FORGOT FORGOTTEN OLVIDAR
GET GOT GOT CONSEGUIR
GIVE GAVE GIVEN DAR
GO WENT GONE IR
GROW GREW GROWN CRECER/PLANTAR
HAVE HAD HAD TENER
HEAR HEARD HEARD OIR
KNOW KNEW KNOWN SABER/CONOCER
LEAVE LEFT LEFT SALIR/MARCHARSE
LIGHT LIT LIT ENCENDER
LOSE LOST LOST PERDER
MAKE MADE MADE HACER
MEET MET MET QUEDAR/CONOCER
PAY PAID PAID PAGAR
PUT PUT PUT PONER
READ READ READ LEER
RIDE RODE RIDDEN MONTAR
RING RANG RUNG SONAR
RUN RAN RUN CORRER
SAY SAID SAID DECIR
SEE SAW SEEN VER
SELL SOLD SOLD VENDER
SEND SENT SENT ENVIAR
SING SANG SUNG CANTAR
SIT SAT SAT SENTARSE
SLEEP SLEPT SLEPT DORMIR
SPEAK SPOKE SPOKEN HABLAR
SPEND SPENT SPENT PASAR/GASTAR
STEAL STOLE STOLEN ROBAR
SWIM SWAM SWUM NADAR
TAKE TOOK TAKEN TOMAR/COGER
TEACH TAUGHT TAUGHT ENSEÑAR
TELL TOLD TOLD DECIR/CONTAR
THINK THOUGHT THOUGHT PENSAR
UNDERSTAND UNDERSTOOD UNDERSTOOD ENTENDER
WEAR WORE WORN LLEVAR PUESTO
WIN WON WON GANAR
WRITE WROTE WRITTEN ESCRIBIR
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Present
I speak spanish Yo hablo español
Present conitunuous
I´m speaking spanish Yo estoy hablando español
Preent perfect
I have spoken spanish Yo he hablado español
Present perfect conrinuous
I have been speaking spanish Yo he estado hablando español
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Past
I spoke spanish Yo hablé español
Past continuous
I was speaking spanish Yo estaba hablando español
Past perfect
I had spoken spanish Yo había hablado español
Past perfect continuous
I had been speaking spanish Yo había estado hablando español
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Modal verbs
Obligation
1.-Must:
must + infinitive is used for strong obligations which express the authority of the speaker or writer, it is used.
A.- For formal rules or laws
Passengers must fasten their seat belts for take-off.
B.- for suggestions, advice or recomendations that the speaker or writer feels strongly about:
You must come to my party. Everyone´s going to be there.
2.-Have to
have to + infinitive is used for strong obligations which express the authority of a third person, rather than that or the speaker or writer. it is used
A.- When the speaker wants to show they are no resposible for imposing the obligation, or does not agree with it:
I'll be late home tonight. I have to work late. My boss said so.
B.- When the speaker or writer is reminding someone about a rule or law:
I´m sorry, but you have to wear a seat belt in the back of cars too.
3.-have got to
have got to + infinitive is more informal than have to. It is often used.
A.-for direct commands:
You have got to stop wasting your money.
B.- for emphasis:
I don't care how hard I have to work, I have just got to pass the exam this time.
4.-need to
need to is used to express needs or necessities, rather than strict obligations:
I we´re going to work together, I need to know about your background and experience.
5.-negative forms
A.-mustn't expresses prohibition (negative rules and laws or strong advice):
Drivers must not exceed the speed limit.
You mustn't blame yourself. It 's not your fault.
B.-do not have to / have not got to express lack of obligations or necessity:
You don't have to wear a uniform, but you can if you like.
C.-do not need to /needn't + infinitive are used to express lack of obligation or necessity and are similar in meaning to do not have to:
There are no lessons tomorrow, so I don´t need to get up early.
You needn't tell me your phone nunber if you don't want to.
D.- did not need to + infinitive means it was not necessary, but we did it in spite of this:
We had to wait for half and hour on the platform because the train was delayed. We needn't have hurried after all.
Permission and prohibition
1.-can/ can't
This is one of the commonest ways of expressing permission and prohibition:
Can I use the phone, please?
In Spain you can't leave school until the age of 16.
**May I ...? means the same as Can I ...? but is more formal and more polite.
2.-Other expressions of permission and prohibition
A.-be allowed to + infinitive
You're allowed to buy lottery tickets when you're 18.
B.-be permitted to + infinitive:
We were only permitted to take photographs in certain places.
C.- let + infinitive without to:
my parents let me stay out late at weekends.
3.- Other expressions of prohibition
You aren't allowed to go abroad without a passport.
Smoking is not permitted in most cinemas.
You are not permitted to smoke in this theatre.
People are forbiddeen to smoke on the Underground.
The workers have been prohibited from striking.
Nigel has been banned from driving for six months.
Present tenses
Present simple
1.- The present simple is used to refer to habitual or routine actions:
Most people work from ) 9.00 am. to 5.00 pm. and have three or four weeks holiday a year.
My father leaves home at 7 o`clock and commutes to work.
The present simple is also used to refer to facts that are always true:
Rivers flow to the sea.
Water boils at 100 ºC
2.- Time expressions used with present simple werbs. These are some of the expressions of time and frequency used with present simple verbs:
always, every day / week, etc., every so often, most weekends, never, occasionally, often, rarely, sometimes, twice a week, usually.
The shops in our town always close at 7 o´clock in the evening.
I never sleep more than six hours a night.
Notice where these words and phrases can be used in sentences:
.- I always /hardly ever / never / occasionally / rarely / sometimes / usually wear big clothes.
.- Every day / Every so often /Most weekends / Occasionally / Sometimes / Usually I wear bring clothes.
.- I wear bright clothes every day / every so often / most weekends / occasionally / sometimes / usually.
Present continuous
1.- The present continuous is used to refer to current trends or on-going situations:
We're staying with friends while our house is repaired.
I'm reading War and Peace at present.
The present continuous is also used to refer to actions taking place at the moment of speaking:
Paul's cooking lunch at the moment. Could you ring back this afternoon, please?
2.- Time expressions used with present continuous verbs.
These are some of the expressions of time and frequency used with present continious verbs:
at present, at the moment, currently, now, this week, today.
Currently, they're working on new antibiotics.
Notice where these words and phrases can be used in sentences:
My sister is currently / now appearing in a new production of a shakespeare play.
Currently, / At present, / At the moment, / This week, / Today, my sister is appearing in a new production of a shakespeare play.
My sister is appearing in a new production of a shakespeare play / at present / at the moment / This week / Today.
** Always can be used with present continuous verbs to mean ''again and again'' or "too frequently".
I'm always loosing my keys.
3.- verbs which are not normally used in the continuous form the following groups of verbs, wich describe states or conditions rather than actions, are not normally used in the continuous form:
.-verbs refering to being: appear, seem, exist, consist of, look, mean, resemble.
.-verbs referring to having: own, belong, contain, hold, possess, have.
.-verbs referring to opinions: agree, beleieve, disagree, expect, hope, know, realize, think, understand
.-verbs referring to feelings: dislike, fear, hate, like, love, regret, respect, trust.
.-verbs referring to senses: feel, hear, taste, see, smell.
** Many of these verbs can also be used to refer to actions. In this case, they can be used to refer to actions. In this case, they can be used in the continuous form.
Examples:
I have three brothers. (have = a state verb) / I'm having a shower. ( have = an action verb).
She spects to get that job. ( expect = a state verb) / she's specting a baby ( expect = an action verb).
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Ability
1.-can and be able to
can and be able to are the verbs most commonly used to talk about ability. Sometimes it is possible to use either verb without changing the meaning of the sentence. Sometimes, we have to use be able to as there is no appropriate form of can.
can
infinitive be able to
present can or am / are / is able to
future will be able to
past could or was / were able to
present perfect have / has been able to
past parfect had been able to
2.- present ability
To talk about a general ability in the present, both forms are possibe, but can is more usual.
Gareth can run very fast
(Gareth is able to run very fast)
To talk about a general ability in the present, can is more usual.
Know how to can be used as an alternative to can.
Can you play chess?
Do you know how to play chess?
3.-Future ability
To talk about an ability in the future, we use the future form of be able to.
Will I be able to play better after I've had some lessons?
4.-Past ability
To talk about a general ability in the past, both forms are possible:
Before his accident, Ben could jump really high.
Before his accident, Ben was able to jump really high.
To talk about an ability to do something in the past on one particular occasion, it is not possible to use could. We must use the past tense of be able to or manage ( + infinitive) or succeed ( + in + -ing):
Although she had lost a lot of blood, the doctors were able to save the girl's life.
Despite the difficult conditions, the surgeons managed to perform the operation successfully and succeeded in saving the man's leg.
**If the event was unsuccessful, it is possible to use couldn't as well as the past forms of be able to, manage and succeed.
Although he did his best, he couldn't finish it in time.
5.-"Conditional" ability
To talk about a hypotetical ability in the present or future, we can use could or would be able to:
I could probably jump further if I had longer legs.
I would probably be able to play better if I practise more.
To talk about a hipothetical ability in the past, we usually use could + have + past participle, although we can also use would have been able to:
Even if he'd been taller, he couldn't have reached it.
Even if he'd been taller, he wouldn't have been able to reach it.
6.- Other structures used to talk about ability
To talk about aptitude and capacity for doing something, we can use be capable of + -ing:
He is certainly capable of breaking the world record.
To talk about how well we do something, we can use the structure be good (brilliant, etc.) / bad (terrible, etc) at + noun or gerund:
I have never been good at sports.
I am particularly bad at running.
Comparative and superlative adjectives and adverbs.
Adjectives
1.-Regular adjectives with one syllable
Adjective Comparative Superlative
tall taller the tallest
large larger the largest
big bigger the biggest
**A.-Adjectives ending in two consonants or two vowels and a consonant, add -er / -est: long, short, bright, smooth, cool, clean, great.
B.- Adjectives ending in -e, add -r / -st : nice, late, safe, strange, rude, wide.
C.- Many adjectives ending in a single vowel + single consonant, double the consonant and add -er / -est : fat; thin; flat; sad; wet.
2.-Regular adjectives with two or more syllables
Adjective Comparative Superlative
heavy heavier the heaviest
modern more modern the most modern
important more important the most important
common more common / the most common/
commoner the commonest
**
A.-Adjectives ending in -y, change y to "i" and add -er / -est: happy, dirty, funny, tidy, busy, early, empty, dry.
B.- Most longer adjectives use more and the most:
comfortable, independent, insignificant, uninteresting
C.- Some two-syllable adjectives can form their comparatives and superlatives in two ways; by adding -er/ -est or with more and most : clever, pleasant, gentle, narrow, shallow, simple, tired.
3.- Irregular adjectives
Adjective Comparative Superlative
good better the best
bad worse the worst
old elder/older the eldest/ the oldest
far further / farther the furthest / the farthest
*only for people; especialy people in the family
I have three brothers. The eldest, Ian, is a musician.
4.-Comparative and superlative adjectives in context
A.- more / -er + than
I'm taller than my brother.
My brother's more serious than me.
I'm more intelligent than he is / him.
** If the pronoun after than is not followed by a verb, use the object pronoun form - me, him, us, them, etc.
If the pronoun after than is followed by a verb, use the subject pronoun form - I, he, we, they, etc.
B.- The most / -est
I'm the tallest student inthe class.
My sister's the most intelligent student in the school.
C.- less + than / the least
That film was less interesting than the last one I saw.
It was the least interesting film I've seen all year.
5.- Qualifying comparative adjectives
.-Use these words and phrases to refer to big differences:
far, a lot, much, considerably, not nearly as...as.
Cars are considerebly faster and far more comfortable than bicycles.
.-Use these words and phrases to refer to small differences: a bit, a little, slightly.
The weather's a bit hotter than it was yesterday.
.-Use these words and phrases to refer to no differences:
just, no.
It's no warmer than it was yesterday.
It's just as cold today as it was yesterday.
Adverbs
1.-Regular and irregular adverbs
A.-The majority of comparative and superlative adverbs are formed like this:
Adverb comparative Superlative
slowly more slowly the most slowly
B.- Irregular adverbs are formed like this:
adverb comparative Superlative
well better the best
badly worse the worst
little less the least
much more the most
C.- Adverbs which are the same as adjectives:
Adverb comparative Superlative
fast faster the fastest
hard harder the hardest
Other adverbs of this kind include: far, long, loud, straight.
2.-The + comparative + the
This construction links two actions or situations - when one thing happens, another thing follows. A comparativ expression in the first clause is balanced by a comparative expression in the second clause. Several gramatical patterns are possible here:
.-Adjective... adjective
The harder a job is, the more rewarding I find it.
.-Adverb... adverb
The sooner we start, the quicker we'll finish.
.-Adjective... adverb, or adverb... adjective.
The easier a job is, the more quickly I do it.
.- more (+ noum) ... more (+noun)
The more money Jack earned, the more clothes he bought.
.-less (+ clause) ... less (+uncountable noun) / fewer (+ plural countable noun)
The less Bob earned, the less food/ the fewer holidays he could afford.
.-more (+clause) ... less (+clause)
The more you sleep, the less you do.
Other combinations of these patterns are possible.
ex: The harder Joe worked, the more he earned.
The more he ate, the fatter he got.
**
A.-Neither of the two clauses in the + comparative + the sentences makes sense without the other.
B.-In writting, a comma is used to separate the two clauses.
C.- Both clauses need a verb.
D.- In some expressions with better, no verbs are needed.
Jim: when shall I come round to see you?
Tim: The sooner, the better.
Other comparative constructions
1.- as...as
This construction can be used with adjectives or adverbs to make comparisons between two things or people.
I'm as tall as my brother.
Trains don't travel as fast as planes.
In negative sentences so can be used instead of the first as.
Cats aren't so friendly as dogs.
2.- comparative + and + comparative
This construction can be used with adjectives or adverbs to refer to a trend.
Towards the end of the film, I became more and more frightened.
As the exams approached, I worked harder and harder.
Over the last twenty years, televisions have become less and less expensive.
3- Extreme adjectives
Ordinary Extreme
cold freezing
angry furious
Hungry starving
Most adjectives can be used with very or really and in the comparative form with even for emphasis.
Yesterday was very / really cold, but today is even colder.
**really is more informal than very
Extreme adjectives cannot be preceded by very or in the comparative by even. If you want to emphasize them, you must use absolutely or really.
I was absolutely / really forious.
** You cannot use absolutely with ordinary adjectives.
/(today is absolutely cold (wrong))/
Today is absolutely freezing. correct
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Describing habitual actions
Habitual actions in the present
1.- Present simple
This is the usual way of expressing present habitual actions.
Whenever I go to town, I spend too much money.
Tend to + infinitive.
The verb tend to + infinitive can be used to refer to usual or generally occurring actions.
She tends to get up late weekends.
2.- Other ways of expressing habitual actions in the present
A.-Present continuous + always
This is used mainly to refer to actions wich are too frequent
She's always giving me presents.
It is also used when you are annoyed with youself or someone else.
You're always complaining about my cooking.
B.- will + infinitive
This can be used instead of the present simple to refer to behaviour which is predictable or typical.
I`ll sit for hours watching TV.
C.- keep + -ing
This is used for habitual actions which are accidental or annoying.
I keep bumping my head on that tree.
Habitual actions in the past
1.-Past simple
When a past simple verb refers to habitual or repeated actions it can be accompanied by a frequency expression.
When I worked in London, I usuallu got home at six o'clock.
2.- used to + infinitive
This refers to habitual past actions which no longer happen.
Before I had a car, I used to cycle to work.
It can also be used for actions that did not happen before, but happen now.
Ididn't use to have foreing holidays. Now I go abroad every year.
We never used to watch TV at breakfast time.
**Remember the question form of used to.
Where did you use to go for your holidays?
**Sentences with used to do not need frequency adverbs, but they are sometimes included for emphasis.
I always used to be late for school.
3.-Would + infinitive
This refers to habitual past actions.
Every summer our parents would take us to the seaside.
Do not use would in questions and negative sentences, as its meaning can be completely different.
**There is a difference in meaning between used to and would.
A.-Used to can refer to permanent situations as well as habitual actions.
I used to be able to see the church from my bedroom window.
B.-Would can only refer to actions, not situations. You can say:
He'd catch the 7.30 train.
but you cannot say:
He'd work in London
4.- used to, be used to and get used to
used to has three forms with different meanings.
.-Used to + infinitive
this refers to habitual past actions.
My father used to get up at 5 a.m.
.-be used to + -ing
This means "to be accustomed to"
I must go to bed early. I´m used to having ten hours sleep a night.
.- get used to + -ing
This means "to become accustomed to", often to something unusual or strange.
If you come to England, you'll have to get used to driving on the left-hand side of the road.
**Other common verbs which follow the same pattern are look forward to and object to.
Countable and uncountables nouns
Countable nouns
1.-Countable nouns are nouns wich have singular and plural forms.
Computer (s), television (s), man/men, child/ children, parent (s).
Singular countable nouns are used with the following:
a/ an, the, one, this, that
The man over there is wearing a black hat.
2.-Countable nouns are used with the following qualifiers:
a few, a lot of, all the, enough, few, lots of, many, most of the, no, none of the, plenty of, several, some, two /three, these, those.
Most of the children had plenty of toys.
Uncountable nouns
1.- Uncountable nouns are nouns that do not have a plural form.
advice, equipment, furniture, information, milk, money, music, paper, research, time, water
Uncountable nouns are used with the following:
a little, a lot of, all the, enough, little, lots of, most of the, no, not much, plenty of, some, the
we have lots of money left, but not enough time to spend it.
2.- Making uncountable nouns countable
to make uncountable nouns countable, use words like these:
piede, bit, box, kilo, piece, loaf, glass, sheet, item, cup, etc.
I'd like a cup of tea and two pieces of toast, please.
Would you mind me giving you a piece of friendly advice?
3.- Nouns which can be countable and uncountable.
Some nouns can be countable and uncountable, but the meaning is different depending on the context.
Look at those fluffy lambs.
I'm not keen on lamb; Ijust don't like the taste.
James got the job because of his wide experience.
I've just had a most incredible experience.
Would you like some wine?
Bordeaux is a French wine.
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The future
There are many ways of talking about future time in English. This is a summary of the most common forms and their uses.
1.- Present continuous
The present continuous is used to refer to future actions or events which have already been arranged.
Are you doing anything interesting at the weekend?
We're spending the summer with our friends in Greece.
2.- will future
Future simple (will + infinitive)
The will future is used to talk about:
.-Future facts
The sun will rise at 6.30 tomorrow morning
.-Predictions or expectations.
I expect Helen and John will be late again.
.-Strong intentions.
When Loretta retires, I'll definitely apply for her job.
.-Instant decisions about the inmediate future.
The phone's ringing. I'll answer it.
.-offers
I'll take you to the airport if you like.
3.- Future conditions (will + be + ing)
This form is used to talk about:
.- Events or actions that will be in progress at specific time in the future.
This time tomorrow, I'll be travelling through France.
.- Predicted or expected trends.
In the twenty-second century, people will be living to the age of 130.
4.- Future perfect simple (will + have + past participle) and Future perfect continuous (will + have + been + -ing). These two forms are used to talk about:
.-actions or events that will already be completed by a particular time in the future.
By the year 2012, I'll have left school and started work.
.-the continuous nature of actions and events in the future.
On saturday we'll have been living here for three years.
** A.- Shall is sometimes used instead of will after I and we.
In a few days we shall have forgotten about accident.
B.- Shall must be used to start questions which are suggestions and offers.
Shall we phone to see what time the film starts?
Shall I carry that heavy case for you?
5.- be going to + infinitive
This is used to talk about:
.-Intentions, plans or resolutions.
After Christmas, I'm going to get a job and save up.
What are you going to do when you leave school?
.-Predictions based on present evidence or knowledge.
My nose is tickling. I'm going to sneeze.
My sister's going to have a baby.
6.- Present simple
This tense is used to talk about scheduled, timetable or fixed events.
The class starts at 9 o'clock tomorrow morning.
7.- Other ways of referring to the future.
.-be (just) about to + infinitive
This is used to talk about actions or events which we spect to happen in the immediate future.
we'd better hurry - The train is just about to leave.
.- be on the point of + -ing.
This expression also refers to the inmediate future.
I'm on the point of going out. Could you phone bach later, please?
.-be likely / unlikely to + infinitive
This is used to refer to probable or improbable actions or events.
we're likely / unlikely to see Ian before next week.
.-be bound to + infinitive
This is used to refer to actions or events which you think are certain to happen
The police are bound to discover who broke in eventually.
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Past time
We use the past simple tense when we want to refer to an action or event which is finished and:
1.-Took place in a specific time and place in the past:
Monica went to London in 2014.
2.-Took place over a specific period in the past:
She lived in london between 2014 and 2015.
3.-Was habitual during a specific period in the past.
When Monica lived in London, she ate dinner about 9.45 pm.
*A past time reference must either be geben or understood from the context.
Past contiuous
We use the past contuous to indicate:
1.-A continuous event in the past (wich may or may not de unfinished).
Andrew was working for his uncle when I first met him.
2.-A temporary event in the past wich was in progress before another event took place.
I 'll always remember what I was doing when i heard the dreadful news.
3.-An event wich started before another event in the past and continued.
When Neil and Sarah eventually turned up, all the other gests were already eating their desert.
4.-Simultaneous, continuous action in the past.
While I was trying to phone her, she was trying to phone me.
5.-Repeated actions occurring over a period of time in the past
Before I moved into my flat, I was always arguing with my parents.
Present perfect
Simple: we use the present perfect simple tense when we wnt to talk about:
1.-An event whinch started in the past, continues in the present and may continue into the future.
My parents have been married for twenty years.
2.-A recent event in the past wich has relevance to the present
A man has appeared in court charged with the murder of the missing person.
3.-A event wich happened in the past without saying when it happened (because we do not consider this is important).
Have you seen Samantha?
I have read Hamlet, but I have never seen it performed.
4.-An event wich happened in the past but in unfinished time (with expressions like today, this month, this year)
I didn't see Josh last week, but I've been out with him twice already this week.
Continuous: We use this form:
1.-To emphasize the continuity and duration of the event.
The Smiths have been living in the same house ever since they got married.
2.-To indicate that a continuous activity in the recent past is responsible for a present situation. This activity may or may not be unfinished.
I'm not crying- I've been peling onions.
*The following verbs can be in the present perfect or the present continuous tense with no real change of meaning, although the continuous form is often preferred: live, wait, drive, smoke, work, stay, study, rain.
I've driven since I was eighteen.
I've been driving since I was eighteen.
Past Perfect
Past perfect simple
1.-we use it to indicate a past event or situation wich ocurred before another past event or situation.
I'd been awake for quite a while before the alarm rang.
Although I arrived on time, Mike had already left.
Note: A time conjunction sometimes replaces the past perfect to show which of the two past events occurred first. In this case both events can be in the past simple tense.
Alex phoned me before he left.
Past perfect continuous
1.-we use the continuous form when we want to emphasize the continuity and duration of an event.
Richard had been trying to get a job for over a year before he was offered his present one.
Participle clauses
A participle clause contains a present participle (seeing), a past participle (seen) or a perfect participle (having seen). It can be used:
1.-To indicate two events happening at the same time. It can replace a time clause.
Walking down the high Street on Saturday, I saw Paul.
(replaces As/ When/ While I was walking...)
2.-To indicate a sequence of events.
Raising their glasses, they wished Darren a happy birthday.
3.-To indicate a reason. It can replace a reason clause.
Not understanding Albert's question, I was unable to give him an answer.
(replaces because / Since I didn't understand...)
Having spent my money on a car, I couldn't afford a holiday.
(replaces Because/ Since I had spent...)
* The subject of the participle must also be the subject of the otrer verb. It is not possible to say: "Having a bath, the phone rang".
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Reporting speech
Direct speech
We can report what someone has said in two ways.
.-We can report their actual words.
.-We can report the idea they expressed.
When we report a person's actual words in writing, we use speech marks and an appropriate verb, eg, say, tell, ask.
I'll be late home tomorrow, Bob said.
Reported speech
When we report the idea and not the actual words a person says we often make changes. These changes are usuallu to verb tenses, pronouns, word order and time and place references.
1.- Reporting statements
Changes in verb tenses
when the reporting verb is in the past tense, eg. said, we usually move the tenses in the sentence we are reporting one step back in time.
DIRECT SPEECH REPORTED SPEECH
Present simple Past simple
"I'm a nurse", she said She said she was a nurse
Present continuous Past continuous
"I'm not going", he said He said he wasn't going
Past simple Past Perfect
"Tony did it", she said She said Tony had done it
Present Perfect Past Perfect
"I haven't read it",she said She said she hadn't read it
Past continuous Past Perfect Continuous
"I was living", he said He said he'd been living
Will Future Would
"I will get it", she said She said she would get it
Can Could
"I can speak english", he said He said he could speak english
May Might
"I may be late", she said She said she might be late
Must Had to
"I must go", he said He said he had to go
*The past perfect and the modals might, ought to, could, should and would do not change in reported speech.
2.- No changes in verb tenses:
When the reporting verb is in the present tense eg. says, we do not change the tense of the original verb. For example:
.-When we are reading what someone has said in a newspaper or letter:
Darren says he's been too busy to write before.
.-Or when we are passing on a message:
Lucy says she'll be late.
.-When the reporting verb is in the past tense and we want to emphasize that the statement is still true, we can keep the same tense.
"Bill is my cousin" She said Bill is her cousin.
3.- Changes in time and place references.
Some typical changes that may have to be made are:
Direct speech Reported speech
Today That day
Tomorrow The next day, the following day
Yesterday The previous day, the day before
Two days ago Two days before, Two days earlier
Now Then
Here There
Come Go
Unless time and place words are reported at the same time and in the same and in the same place as they were originally said, they change.
"Marie phoned yesterday". (said on Monday)
He said that Marie had phoned two days ago / on Sunday. (said on Tuesday).
4.- Other Changes
Pronouns may change when we are reporting speech. This depends on who is reporting.
"I'll give you a lift" (Jack to Barbara).
Jack said he would give me a lift. (Barbara to someone else)
The determiners this, that, these, those may change to the.
"These jeans are too tight", Jessica said.
Jessica said the jeans were too tight.
The pronouns this and that may change to it.
"Give me that!" Jayne said.
Jayne told me to give it to her.
5.- Reporting verbs
We can use the verbs say and tell to report statements. The structure after these verbs is:
.- Say (that) + clause:
Richard said (that) he would be late.
.- And tell someone (that) + clause:
Richard told me (that) he would be late.
*The word that is frequently omitted in spoken English.
6.- Reporting questions
We make the same changes to verb tenses, time and place references and pronouns as we do when we report statements. We also change the form of the original question into a statement and therefore omit auxiliary verbs (do, does, did) and question marks.
"When are you arriving?"
He asked me when I was arriving.
If there is no question word in the original, we must use if or whether.
"Do you understand?"
He asked her if / Wheter she understood.
To report questions we can use the verb ask or the structure want to know if.
"Are you enjoying yourself?" Mr Johnes asked.
Mr Johnes wanted to know if I was enjoying myself.
7.- Reporting advice, commands, requests and warnings. We can report these kind of speech using the verbs advise, tell, ask and warn + personal object pronoun + infinitive.
.- Advice
"You really should stop!"
She advised me to stop.
.- Command
"Don't interrupt me!"
He told me not to interrupt him.
.- Request
"Could you close the door please?"
She asked me to close the door.
.-Warning
"If you tell anyone, I'll ...!"
She warned me not to tell anyone.
**A
The structure after ask is different depending on whether we are reporting a request or a question.
"Can you remind me, please?" request
She asked me to remind him.
"Can you come tomorrow?" question
She asked me if I could come the next day.
**B
The structure after tell is different depending on whether we are reporting a command or a statement.
"Come on! Hurry up! command
She told us to hurry up.
"It doesn't start till eight." statement
He told us (that) it didn't start until eight.
8.- Reporting suggestions
We can report suggestions with the verb suggest + clause. For example, to report "Let's stay in":
She suggested that we (should) stay in.
She suggested that we stayes in.
She suggested staying in.
*You can not use the infinitive after suggest.
So / Such
We use so and such to add emphasis.
Everyone was so friendly.
They were such friendly people.
1.- So is used with
.-adjectives and adverbs.
Our journey was so quick.
Our journey went so quick.
.-much / little (+ uncountable noun).
I didn't realiza we had so much time.
She didn't realize she had so little money left.
.-many / few ( + plural countable noun).
So many people applied for thet job, but there were so few jobs avalaible.
2.- Such is used with
.- a + adjective + singular noun.
We saw such a good film last night.
.-adjective + plural countable noun / uncountable noun.
Everyone was wearing such bright clothes.
We had such dreadful weather on our holiday.
.- a lot (of) + plural countable noun / uncountable noun.
We had such a lot of things to do, we didn't know where to start.
He won such a lot of money on the lottery that he could afford a luxury apartament.
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Passive verbs
1.- Verbs that can be used in the pasive. Most transitive verbs can be used in the pasive. A trasitive verb is a verb wich takes an ogject, e.g. catch.
The police caught the thief.
Intransitive verbs cannot be used in the passive. An intransitive verb is a verb wich does not take an object : fall.
Rodney fell and hurt his leg.
2.- Form of the passive. The passive is formed with the verb be in the appropriate tense + the past participle of the main verb. In the case of modals e.g. Could and must, it is formed with the modal + be + past participle.
Tense Subject Verb be Past participle
Present Letters are delivered
simple twice a day
Present the suspect is being questioned by
continuous the police
Past simple The programme was first broadcast in 1998
Past continuous Our hotel room was being cleaned when we arrived
Present perfect My car has been stolen
Past perfet They had been warned about the danger
Future You will be paid on friday
Modal verbs This meat must be cooked for at least an hour
3.- Choosing the active or the passive form.
.-In an active sentence, the subject is the person or thing that does the action.
Barcelona beat Manchester United.
.-In a passive sentence, the subject of the verbis the person or thing affected by the action.
Manchester United were beaten by Barcelona.
When we want to focus on the person or thing affected by the action instead of the performer of the action (the agent), we use the passive.
4.- Including the agent (performer or doer).
When we use the passive we can choose whether to include the agent or not. The agent is the person or thing who/ which performs the action.
The record is held by Carl Lewis.
We do not need to include the agent when:
A.- The agent is not important. So, we do not need to say:
Trespassers will be prosecuted by the landowner.
B.- We don't know who the agent is and so would have to use the words somebody or a person. We do not need to say:
My car has been stolen by somebody.
C.- When the agent is obvious. So, we do not need to say:
The tief was sentenced to five years imprisionment by the judge.
D.- When the agent has already been mentioned. So, we do not need to say:
Someone of Stephen King's books have been written by him under the pseudonym Richard Bachman.
**In informal English get can sometimes be used instead of be to form the passive. The agent is not generally mentioned.
Nigel got stopped for speeding.
5.- Verbs with two objects
Some verbs can have two objects: a direct object and an idirect object.
Lady Markham´s late husband gave the painting (OD) to the gallery (OI).
Lady Markham´s late husband gave the gallery (OI) the painting (OD).
Either of the two objects can be the subject of the passive verb.
The painting was given to the gallery by her late husband
The gallery was given the painting by her late husband.
When one of the objects is a person, it is more usual for this to be the subject.
Bobby was given a new bike for his birthday.
6.- Passive constructions with the infinitive
When we want to pass on information but we do not know whether the information is true or not, or we do not want to say where the information came from, we can use the passive form of these verbs: think, believe, report, consider, know, say, expect + infinitive.
when the information is about a present situation, we use the passive + infinitive.
The Queen is thought to be one of the richest people in the world.
Mr Smith is believed to be staying with friends.
When the information is about something in the past, we use the passive + infinitive (have + past participle).
The ship is reported to have sunk. Many people are thought to have drowned.
7.- Have / Get something done (causative).
Caustive verbs have something done and get something done are used to refer to actions which are done FOR the subject rather than BY the subject. Caustive verbs are used instead of passive verbs to show that the subject causes the action to be done.
1.- have something done
I don't know how to repair cars, so i'm having mine repaired at the gerage round the corner.
2.- get something done
I really must get my eyes tested. I'm sure i need glasses.
Get you hair cut!
** Have something done is slightly more formal than get something done.
Get is more frequent than have in the imperative form.
Non causative uses of have and get:
Have and get are also used to refer to events which happened to someone, but were outside their control:
The company was in financial difficulty so I had my pay reduced.
The fire spread so quickly that I got my legs burnt.
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Gerunds and infinitives
Certain verbs, adjectives and prepositions must always be followed by the gerund; others must alwais be followed by the infinitive. Some verbs, however, can be followed by either.
Gerunds
Gerunds are verbs that are like nouns. They are formed by adding -ing to the verb and can be used in four ways:
A: as the subject of a clause or sentence
eating out can be expensive.
B: as the object of a clause or sentence
One of my interests is collecting antiques.
C: After some verbs
.-After verbs expressing likes and dislikes (see below the gerund or the infinitive: B)
I don't enjoy seeing you like this.
.-After other verbs such as: admit, appreciate, avoid, can't help, consider, delay, deny, finish, forgive, give up, imagine, involve, keep, mind, miss, postpone, put off, prevent, report, resist, risk, suggest.
Have you considered buying a new one?
D: After prepositions
.-After all prepositions.
It is for opening bottles.
.-After adjective + preposition combinations such as: nervous / worried about, bad / good / clever / skilled at , sorry / responsible for, interested in, capable / affraid / frightened / terrified of, bored with.
I'm interested in applying for the job.
.-After verb + preposition combinations such as: warn someone about, apologize for,arrest someone for, succeed in, congratulate someone on, insist on, be / get used to, look forward to, object to.
My little brother insisted on coming with me.
The infinitive
The infinitive with to
.- It is always used after certains vebs: Afford, agree, arrange, ask, appear, attempt, choose, decide, expect, help, hope, intend, learn, manage, offer, pretend, promise, refuse, seem.
I can't afford to go on holiday this year.
.- The infinitive is always used after certain adjectives: amazed, certain, difficult, disappointed, easy, free, glad, happy, likely, pleased, possible, simple, sure, surprised.
The recipe is simple to follow.
The gerund or the infinitive
Some verbs can be followed by the gerund or the infinitive.
A: with no change of meaning.
The verbs start, begin, continue, can be followed by either the gerund or the infinitive, without changing the meaning of the sentence.
Jeff continued to overeat / overeating despite the doctor's advice.
B: With a slight change of meaning
The meaning of the verbs like, prefer, hate, love, changes slightly, depending on whether the gerund or infinitive follows them.
The gerund is more usual for general statements when the emphasis is on the enjoyment (or not ) of the action.
Mary prefers eating out to eating at home.
The infinitive is more usual for more specific statements where extra information is given.
Jane prefers to eat out because there's no washing-up to do.
* Whit the verb like + infinitive there is often the added meaning of a preferred alternative.
I like to drive there may imply "I prefer that means of transport to going by train or coach".
C: with a change of meaning:
The verbs try, stop, regret, remember, forget, mean, go on; can be followed by the gerund or the infinitive, but with a change in meaning.
D: Verbs where there is a change of meaning according to whether the gerund or the infinitive is used after them.
Try.
.- + gerund = to experiment in order to achive an objective.
Try going to bed earlier and see if that helps.
.- + infinitive= to attempt a difficult action.
Sophie is been trying to get a job since she left school, but with no success.
Stop
.-
Stop talking and get on with you work!
.- + infinitive=to interrupt one activitiy in order to do another
Roger stopped (what he was doing) to have a cup of tea.
Regret
.- + gerund= to be sorry about an action in the past.
Many people regret marrying young.
.- + infinitive= to be sorry about what you are going to say.
Dr. Taylor regrets to say that she is unable to see patients without an appointment.
Forget / Remember
.- + gerund= to (not) recall an action.
I distinctly remember asking them to come after lunch.
I won't forget being at the Olympic Games as long as I live.
.- + infinitive= to (not) do an action you must do
Ann remembered to lock all the doors when she went on holiday, but she forgot to close the bathroom window.
Go on
.- + gerund= to continue an action
I'll go on applying for jobs intil I'm successful.
.- + infinitive= to finish one activity and start another.
After 7 years of study, Andy went on to become a doctor.
Mean
.- + gerund= to involve
Dieting ussually means giving up sweet things.
.- + infinitive= to intend
I meant to send you a postcard, but I couldn't remember your address.
The verbs of perception see (watch, notice, tec,) feel, hear, smell have a different meaning when thay are followed by the infinitive (without to) or a participle.
.- + participle= to experience part of an event
I noticed a man acting in a strange way.
.- + infinitive without to= to experience the whole event
I heard my sister come in at 1 am.
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Relative Clauses
A relative clause is used to add extra information. Instead of giving the information in two sentences, we can combine the two pieces of information in one sentence using a relative clause.
The man was so boring. He sat next to me the whole journey.
The man who sat next to me the whole journey was so boring.
Relative pronouns
1.- A relative clause starts with a relative pronoun: who (whom), wich, that, whose, where, when, why; or no relativepronoun.
2.- The chronicle of relative pronoun depends on whether:
.-The relative clause is defining or non-defining.
.-It refers to a person or a thing.
.-It is the subject or object of the relative clause.
A.- Defining B.-Non-defining
person thing person thing
1.- Subject Who/that which/that who which
2.- Object (0) / Who(m) (0)/which who(m) which
that that
3.- Possessive Whose Whose Whose Whose
** A.- Who and which are more usual than that in writing.
B.- Whom is very formal and is used mainly in writting.
Defining and non-defining relative clauses
1.- Defining clauses
The information given in a defining relative clauses is essential to the meaning of the sentence. it makes clear wich person or thing we are talking about. For example, if we omit the relative clause in this sentence, we don't know wich man the speaker is talking about.
The man who came to the wedding dressed in jeans is Simon's brother.
The defining relative clause gives us this information.
2.- Non-Defining clauses
The information given in a non-defining relative clause is not essential to the meaning of the sentence. If we omit the relative clause, it is still clear who we are talking about.
Mr White (who has been head teacher at the school for 40 years, is retiring at the end of term.
** A.- Defining relative clauses are common in spoken and written English. However, non-defining relative clauses are less common in spoken English.
B.- In non defining relative clauses, which can refer back to a whole clause.
He climbed the mountain wearing only a T-shirt and jeans, wich was a stupid thing to do.
(The fact that he climbed the mountain wearing only a T-shirt and jeans was a stupid thing to do).
C.- Commas are put before and after the non-defining relative clause, unless this is also the end of the sentence.
We stayed at the Carlton, which is a five-star hotel in the city center.
3.- Where, when, why
A.-Where can introduce a defining or non-defining relative clause which follows the world "place" or any noun which refers to a place, for example, "house", "restaurant", "road".
Wendy was brought up in Scotland, where she was born, but later emigrated to Australia.
If you visit Yorkshire, it is worth visiting the house where the Brontes lived.
B.-When can introduce a defining or non-defining relative clause wich follows the world "time" or any noun which refers to a period of time, for example, "year", "century", "winter".
June is the month (when) many couples get married in the UK.
The town is quieter after lunch, when everyune is having a siesta.
C.-why can introduce a defining relative clause after the world "reason".
Do you know (the reason) why Kate's changed her mind?
4.- Relative clauses and prepositions
A.-Informal use
.-In spoken English and informal written English, prepositions usually come at the end of the relative clause.
The hotel which we stayed al while we were in London is very expensive.
.-In informal defining relative clauses the pronoun is usually omitted.
The man (0) I spoke to gave me different information.
The letter (0) you refer to has not been answered to my satisfaction.
B.- Formal use
.-In formal written English, prepositions usually come before the relative pronoun.
The Savoy Hotel, at which many celebrities stay when they are in the capital, is very expensive.
.-In formal defining relative clauses with prepositions we use whom to refer to people and which to refr to things. The pronoun cannot be omitted.
The Hotel manager, to whom I spoke about the problem, suggested I write you.
The fact that the Hotel was undergoing renovation during our stay, about which we had not been informed, completely ruined our holiday.
5.- Relative clauses after numbers and certain words
A.- Non-defining relative clauses can be introduced by a number + of + the following words: all, any, both, each, either, (a) few, many, most, much, neither, none, some.
They are followed by the relative pronoun whom for people and which for things.
Dozens of people had been invited, ten of whom I knew. I fell asleep during the lecture, most of which was incomprehensible.
B.- Defining relative clauses can be introduced by the following words: all, any(thing), every(thing), (a) few, little, many, much, no(thing), none, some(thing) and superlative adjectives.
We usually use the relative pronoun that after these words. When the relative pronoun is the object of the relative clause, that is commonly omitted.
It was something that could have happened to anyone.
It was the most difficult exam (that) I've ever taken.
6.- Omitting pronouns from relative clauses (0)
Omitting relative pronouns is common in spoken or informal written English in
A.- Defining relative clauses when the relative pronoun is the object of its clause.
The party (0) I went to last night didn't finish till late.
The tree (0) the council cut down by mistake was over fifty years old...
Do you know the reason (0) they've decided to put off the wedding?
August is the month (0) most people take their annual holiday.
B.- Defining relative clauses with a form of the verb be, when both the "be" part of the verb and the relative pronoun can be omitted. This is sometimes called a "reduced" relative clause.
The man /(who is)/ standing on his own over there is Amy's brother.
The car /(which was)/ used in the robbery was discovered abandoned in a nearby field.
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Wishes, regrets and preferences
Whish
We use wish to talk about situations we would like to change but can't, either because they are outside our control or because they are in the past. The tense of the verb after wish does not correspond to the time we are talking about; it changes. The verb tense is one step back in time (as in reported speech).
1.- A Wish about a present or future situation is expressed with a past tense:
Situation Wish
I am an only child. I wish I wasn't an only child.
I can't drive I wish I could drive.
Rod isn´t comming to the party I wish Rod was comming
**In formal English we say: I, he, she, it: Were/ Weren't
2.- A wish about a past situation is expressed with a past perfect tense:
Situation Wish
I've lost my best pen. I wish I hadn't lost it.
I didn't remember. I wish I'd remembered.
3.- Wish ... Would:
We use sish and would:
.-When we want to complain about a present situation:
Situation Wish
A dog is barking. I wish that dog would stop barking!
The road is icy. I wish you wouldn´t drive so fast.
** We can't say I wish I would... Refering to ourselves we have to say I wish I could...
.-When we are impatient for an event outside our control to happen:
Situation Wish
You're waiting for the bus I wish the bus would come.
** It is not possible to use wish...would with the verb "be" unless we are complaining. We say "I wish it were Friday" and not "I wish it would be Friday".
Other structures to express wishes and regret:
A.-If we want a future event to happen or not happen, and this event is possible and not just a desire, we use the verb hope to present simple.
I hope I pass my exams.
B.-If only can often be used in places of wish to express a slightly stronger sense of regret.
I wish Sue was here/ if only Sue was here, she'd know what to do.
C.- I'd rather
We use would rather to express a preference
1.-About our own actions.
.-If we are referring to a present situation, we use would rather + infinitive without to.
I'd rather be rich than poor.
.-If we are referring to a past situation, we use would rather + perfect infinitive.
I'd rather have lived 100 years ago than now.
2.-About someone else's actions.
.-If we are referring to a present situation, we use would rather + past simple.
I'd rather you came tomorrow / I'd rather you didn't come on wednesday.
.-If we are referring to a past situation, we use would rather + past perfect.
I'd rather you hadn't told me / I'd rather you had kept it to youself.
D.- It's time
We use the expresion it's time and it's high time to show that we think something should happen soon. We use the past tense to refer to the present or the future:
My hair is rather long. It's time I got it cut.
He's over thirty. It's high time he settled down and got himself a proper job!
We use the expression it´s time + infinitive to show that the moment for something to happen has come:
It's 5 o'clock. It's time to go home. (we normally finish at 5 o'clock).
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Conditional sentences
There are four main types of conditional sentence. Each type has a distinctive pattern of verb tenses, and its own meaning.
Zero conditional:
Form:
If + present + present simple imperative
Meanings
This type of sentence is used for conditions which are aleays true.
If Mike reads on the train, he feels sick. (Every time Mike reads on the train, the same thing happens: he feels sick.)
This type of sentence is also used for scientific facts.
If you put paper on a fire, it burns quickly.
It is also used to give instructions.
If the phone rings, answer it.
In Zero or present conditional sentences when or Whenever can be used instead of if.
First conditional:
Form:
If + present simple + future will.
Meaning:
This type of sentence is used to predict likely or probable results in the future, if a condition is met.
If we don't leave now, we'll miss the train.
If we leave now, we won't need to hurry.
First conditional sentences are often used to express persuasion, promises, warnings and threats.
If you pass your exams, we'll give you a job.
If you don't turn that music down, you'll go deaf.
Some modal verbs can be used instead of will
If we leave now, we may catch the train.
If you come to London again, you must call and see us.
Second conditional:
Form:
If + past simple + would / could / might.
Meaning:
This type of sentence is used to speculate about imaginary or improbable situations; the implication is that the conditions will not be met.
You'd feel healthier if you did more exercise.
If you went to Africa, you'd have to have several injections.
(it's not likely you'll go to Africa, but it is possible).
Second conditional sentences can also refer to unreal situations.
If people didn't drive so fast, there wouldn't be so many fatal accidents. (actually, people do drive fast and there are a lot of fatal accidents.)
If I were taller, I'd play basketball. (Being taller is impossible for me).
Second conditional sentences are often used to express advice.
If I were you, I wouldn't drive so fast.
might / could
Might and Could can be used instead of would in the main clause of second conditional sentences to show uncertainly.
If you did more exercise, you might feel healthier.
Third conditional
Form:
If + past perfect ... would / might / could have + past participle
Meaning
This type of sentence looks back at the past and speculates about possibilities which didn't happen.
If I'd had your adress, I'd have sent you a postcard. (I didn't have your address, so I didn´t send you a postcard).
You might not have crashed into the bus if you'd been driving more slowly.
** When the "if" clause comes before the main clause, it is followed by a comma. When the "if" clause comes after the main clause, there is no comma between the clauses.
Mixed conditional sentences
Form
if + past perfect ... Would / could / might
Meaning
This type of sentence, which is a mixture of a third conditional sentence and a second conditional sentence, links a completed past action with a present result.
If I hadn't broken my leg, I would go on holiday with you.
I'd have a better job now, if I'd worked harder when I was at school.
Other ways of introducing conditions
unless
Unless can sometimes be used instead of " if not".
Unless we leave now, we'll miss the train. (if we don't leave now, we'll miss the train)
as long as
As long as is used to emphasize a condition.
I'll lend you the money you need as long as you promise not to waste it.
provided (thet)
Provided (that)... and Providing (that) ... mean "on condition that" and are slightly more formal than if.
You can come on holiday with us provided (that) you do some.
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Probability and posibility
Expressing near certainly
If we are almost certain that something is or is not the case, and this certainty is based on evidence, we can make statements using must or can't.
**Can't (not mustn't ) is the negative of must.
1.- To talk about a present situation we use must or can't + infinitive without to.
My doctor must be married. She wears a wedding ring. (I am almost certain she is married)
Angus can't have a lot of money. He's been out of work for over a year. (I am almost certain he doesn´t have a lot of money).
We can also use the continuous form of the verb.
Virginia must be wondering where I am. I said I'd be there at 3 p.m. and ir's now 5 p.m.
John can't be coming. He would be here by now if he was.
2.- To talk about a past situation we use must or can't + have + past participle.
Sandra must have passed her driving test because I saw her driving a car on her own. (I am almost certain they didn't enjoy their holiday).
We can also use the continuous form of the verb.
I´m sorry I'm late. You must have been waiting for ages!
You can't have been listening very carefully because I did say tomorrow, not today.
Expressing possibility
If we are not certain that something is the case but we think it is possible, we can make statements using may / might or could.
1.- To talk about a present situation we use could, may, might + infinitive without to.
Paula could / might / may be on holiday. (perhaps she's on holiday)
Claude could / might/ may not want to come with us. It is possible he doesn't want to come with us).
We can also use the continuous form of the verb.
Julie could / might / may be visiting her mother.
2.- To talk about a past situation we use may, might, could + have+ past participle.
Freda could /may / might / have overslept. (It is possible that she's overslept).
*The lorry driver couldn't have cause the accident.)
We can also use the continuous form of the verb.
The missing girl may have been wearing a blue skirt.
**A.-There is no real deference in meaning between may, might and could in affirmative sentences.
B.- The negative forms of may and might are may not and might not. These are not usually contracted.
C.- The negative form of could is couldn't. Its meaning is similar to can't, which means it can only be used to express near certainty Not possibility:
He can't /couldn't be lying. (I am almost certain he isn't lying)
Articles
The definite article THE
Three of the main uses of the definite article are to refer to:
A.- something that has been mentioned before.
Bill: -I've got a dog.
Ben: -What´s the dog's name?
B.- something there is only one of in a particular context.
The Queen spent three days in Wales.
Soon after we'd taken off, the pilot welcomed us on board.
C.- something the speaker and listener both know about.
The film was really good - Thanks for recommending it.
It is also used in these ways:
D.- with superlative constructions.
She's the fastest runner in Europe.
E.- with adjectives used as nouns referring to groups of people.
There's one law for the rich and another for the poor.
F.- with the names of oceans, seas, rivers, mountain ranges.
The Atlantic, the Thames, the Alps
G.- with the names of some countries and groups of islands.
the United States, the United Kingdom, the West Indies.
The indefinite article a / an
These are the main uses of the indefinite article:
A.- to refer to something for the first time.
I've got a dog.
B.- te refer to a person or thing (but not a special person or thing).
Can I have a drink please? Tea, cofee, ber, I don't mind.
C.- to refer to a person's job.
Alan is a telephone engineer.
D.- with numbers.
A hundred, a million.
Zero article (0)
These are the main contexts in wich no article is used:
A.- With plural countable nouns with general meaning.
(0) Professional footballers are paid too much money.
B.- With uncontalble nouns with general meaning.
He used to drink a lot of (0) coffee, but now he drinks only (0) tea.
They fell in (0) love while they were in Spain.
C.- with the names of towns, cities, states and most countries.
(0) New York, (0) Texas, (0) Greece
D.- with nouns for certain places or situations.
Suzy went into (0) hospital yesterday.
on (0) deck, at (0) home, on (0) holiday, to (0) Church, at (0) school, at (0) university.
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